Equilibrium Solubility of CO2 in Aqueous Potassium Taurate Solutions

In the fourth column of Table 2, the ratio of the concentration of component 4 to the solubility of taurine in pure water (CAmAH+/Sw) is given. As can...
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GENERAL RESEARCH Equilibrium Solubility of CO2 in Aqueous Potassium Taurate Solutions: Part 1. Crystallization in Carbon Dioxide Loaded Aqueous Salt Solutions of Amino Acids P. S. Kumar,†,‡ J. A. Hogendoorn,† P. H. M. Feron,§ and G. F. Versteeg*,† OOIP Group, Faculty of Chemical Technology, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands, and TNO Environment, Energy and Process Innovation, 7300 AH Apeldoorn, The Netherlands

Crystallization of a reaction product was observed during the absorption of CO2 in aqueous potassium taurate solutions at 298 K. The crystallizing solid was found to be the protonated amine. The critical CO2 loading value at which crystallization occurred was measured for various amino acid salt concentrations. A simple relation between the critical CO2 loading value, initial amino acid salt concentration, and solubility of the amino acid in water is established. This relation seems to hold well in predicting the critical CO2 loading value for salts of amino acids other than taurine, for which Hook (Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 1997, 36, 1779) has recently published some qualitative experimental data. The influence of the formation of the solid reaction product during the absorption of CO2 in aqueous potassium taurate solutions on the mass-transfer characteristics of a gas-liquid contactor was investigated semiquantitatively for a stirred reactor. In particular, the effect of the presence and absence of crystals in CO2-loaded solutions on the liquid-side volumetric mass-transfer coefficient was studied by carrying out physical N2O absorption experiments in CO2-loaded aqueous potassium taurate solutions. 1. Introduction Aqueous solutions of amines, more specifically, alkanolamines, are extensively used in the removal of acid gases such as CO2 and H2S from a variety of industrial gas streams.1 It has been widely reported that alkanolamines undergo degradation in oxygen-rich atmospheres, such as those typically encountered in the treatment of flue gases, resulting in very toxic degradation products in addition to the loss of solvent.2,3 Aqueous alkaline salts of amino acids can be a good alternative for alkanolamines in certain areas of gas treating, although they are more expensive than alkanolamines. The ionic nature of these liquids makes them more stable to oxidative degradation and also gives them certain other desirable physical properties such as low volatility, higher surface tension, etc. Salts of amino acids are of considerable interest in the development of hybrid solvents, especially as rate promoters for conventional gas-treating solvents. Numerous processes based on sterically and nonsterically hindered amino acid salts have been reported in the literature or patented.1 Despite the above-mentioned advantages of amino acid salts over alkanolamines, many salts undergo * To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel.: 003153-4894337. Fax: 0031-53-4894774. E-mail: g.f.versteeg@ ct.utwente.nl. † University of Twente. ‡ Presently at Shell Global Solutions International BV, P.O. Box 541, 2501 CM, The Hague, The Netherlands. § TNO Environment, Energy and Process Innovation.

crystallization during the absorption of CO2, especially for solutions of high amino acid salt concentration at high CO2 loading.4 The occurrence of crystallization during absorption offers certain interesting opportunities as well as drawbacks. The opportunities are related to the fact that the crystallization of reaction product(s) in an equilibrium-limited liquid-phase reaction results in an increase of the equilibrium conversion of the limiting liquid-phase reactant or equilibrium CO2 loading capacity (usually expressed in terms of moles of CO2 per mole of amine) over a situation where no crystallization of the reaction product(s) occurs. The negative aspects are the plugging and fouling of the gas-liquid contactors and heat-transfer surfaces. Also, the presence of micro/macroscopic particles of the reaction product in the liquid phase can significantly influence the masstransfer characteristics of the gas-liquid contactors.5 In the past, amino acid salts have been used mostly in low concentrations (as rate promoters) along with conventional gas-treating solvents, and hence, crystallization problems have probably not been encountered. Consequently, there is not much information on this topic in the open literature. Recently, Hook4 presented an extensive (but qualitative) investigation of the absorption of CO2 in many sterically and nonsterically hindered aqueous amino acid salt solutions and found that many amino acid salts undergo crystallization at various values of CO2 loading. Because of the limited experimental data, especially on crystallization, no significant conclusions can be drawn on the relation between the critical CO2 loading (or point at which

10.1021/ie0206002 CCC: $25.00 © 2003 American Chemical Society Published on Web 05/17/2003

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Figure 1. Reaction scheme for the absorption of CO2 in aqueous potassium salt of taurine.

crystallization occurs) and the type of amino acid. For situations where crystallization of the reaction product(s) is undesirable, the critical CO2 loading is very important, as it indicates the operational width (cyclic loading) for the maximum loading in the absorber and regeneration of the solvent in the stripper. The present work was done within the context of a project to develop new reactive absorption liquids for the removal of CO2 using membrane gas-liquid contactors. The study presented here considers the factors influencing the occurrence/nonoccurrence of crystallization during the absorption of CO2 in aqueous alkaline salts of amino acids and its influence on gas-liquid mass transfer. Taurine (2-aminoethanesulfonic acid) was used as a model amino acid compound to develop an understanding of the crystallization phenomenon. A theoretical and experimental investigation of the influence of crystallization on the CO2-amine vapor-liquid equilibria was performed separately.6 2. Literature Review Alkaline salts of amino acids react with CO2 similarly to alkanolamines, and the reactions that occur in the liquid phase are as follows

2RNH2 + CO2 S RNHCOO- + RNH3+

(1)

RNHCOO- + H2O S RNH2 + HCO3-

(2)

HCO3- S CO32- + H+

(3)

RNH3+ S RNH2 + H+

(4)

H2O S H+ + OH-

(5)

An amino acid salt (represented as RNH2) reacts with carbon dioxide, and the primary products are a carbamate and a protonated amine (reaction 1). In aqueous solutions, the carbamate undergoes hydrolysis, resulting in the formation of bicarbonate/carbonate (depending on the pH of the liquid) and an amine (reaction 2). The deprotonated amine can then react with CO2. Hook4 observed crystallization during the absorption of CO2 in a wide variety of amino acid salt solutions. For all amino acids except glycine, crystallization was observed at moderate to high CO2 loadings. The author used a batch experimental setup, in which pure CO2 was absorbed in a 2.5 M amino acid salt solution from a constant-pressure (100 kPa) gas “reservoir”. From the change in the volume of the gas reservoir, the CO2 loading of the liquid was estimated. After crystallization

had occurred in the liquid and the liquid had reached equilibrium with the gas phase, water was added to the contents of the reactor (liquid as well as precipitate) to redissolve the solids. The analysis of the resulting liquid using 13C NMR spectroscopy indicated that there were 2 mol of amine per mole of the carbon dioxide species. Hence, the precipitate was concluded to be a carbonate salt of doubly charged protonated amine [(KO2CR′NH2R+)2CO32-]. It should be noted that the equilibration time in the experiments was long enough (approximately 20 h) for the hydrolysis of the carbamate to occur, and hence, it is natural to expect carbonate/ bicarbonate salts in the liquid. Because crystallization was observed at very high CO2 loadings (R > 0.9 mol of CO2/mol of AmA) for some amino acids (for example, R-alanine), the dissolved CO2 should be present predominantly as bicarbonate species rather than carbonate. At such high CO2 loadings, the pH of the solution is low enough to rule out the presence of carbonate (see also Figure 4). Clearer information about the composition of the solids could have been obtained if the crystals had been separated from the liquid and analyzed independently. 3. Experimental Section A clear understanding of the composition of the precipitate could possibly aid in controlling or overcoming the crystallization problem. To elucidate the crystallization phenomenon, an experimental study on the absorption of CO2 in aqueous amino acid salt solutions was carried out at near-ambient conditions (298 K). The objective was to predict process parameters that control the onset of crystallization and identify the nature of the solids formed. From the reaction scheme discussed earlier, the precipitate should be one (or more) of the reaction products, i.e., carbamate, carbonate, bicarbonate, and/or protonated amine. In the present study, taurine was used as a model compound, as some information was already available on the salts of amino carboxylic acids.4 For an aqueous potassium salt of taurine, the reaction scheme is shown in Figure 1. For primary amines, the reaction between amine and CO2 is very fast in comparison to the secondary carbamate hydrolysis reaction.7 From the reaction scheme, it can be observed that, if the hydrolysis reaction is neglected, the theoretical maximum CO2 loading of the solution is 0.5. Depending on the residence time of the liquid in the gas-liquid contactor, some degree of carbamate hydrolysis always occurs, and this results in maximum CO2 loading values larger than 0.5. From the reaction scheme (Figure 1), it should be noted that component 4 is identical to the zwitterionic form of taurine.

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Figure 2. Experimental setup.

3.1. Chemicals. The potassium salt of taurine (2aminoethanesulfonic acid, 99.9% pure, Merck) was prepared by neutralizing the amino acid dissolved in deionized, distilled water with an equimolar quantity of potassium hydroxide (Merck) in a standard flask. The neutralization reaction was carried out with constant cooling. The amino acid dissolved in water exists as a zwitterion (form II in reaction 7), with the amino group completely protonated. The ionic equilibria of the amino acids are as follows -H+

HO3S-CH2-CH2-NH2 y\z I -

-H+

O3S-CH2-CH2-NH3+ y\z II O3S-CH2-CH2-NH2 (6) III

Addition of KOH results in deprotonation of the amino group, corresponding to the second equilibrium. Only deprotonated amine species III can react with the acid gases. The concentration of the deprotonated amine (amino acid salt) was estimated potentiometrically by titration with standard HCl solutions. 3.2. Experimental Setup. The experimental setup consisted of a double-walled stirred reactor (1660 cm3), as shown in Figure 2. A thermostat was used to control the temperature of the contents of the reactor to within (0.1 K. The stirrer used was a gas-inducing impeller to enable a high mass-transfer rate and thereby reduce possible liquid-side mass-transfer limitations. The reactor was provided with a temperature and pressure indicator. The reactor was connected to a calibrated gas supply vessel through a pressure controller, for control of the pressure in the reactor side. The gas supply vessel was also provided with a pressure and temperature indicator. The reactor was connected to a vacuum pump for the evacuation of inert gases from the reactor, as well as removal of the dissolved gases in the liquid, prior to the actual experiments. To analyze the CO2 loading in the liquid, an analytical method similar to the one reported by Blauwhoff et al.8 was used. 3.3. Procedure. A known volume (approximately 750 mL) of the prepared salt solution was transferred to the reactor, and vacuum was applied to the reactor until the liquid started to boil. The application of vacuum to the reactor was then stopped, and gas-liquid equilibrium was allowed to become established in the reactor. The pressure in the reactor was noted. The gas supply vessel was subsequently filled with pure CO2 (99.999%

purity) to a desired initial pressure. The stirrer was started, and the gas flow into the reactor was regulated by the pressure controller. After a known amount of CO2 had been admitted into the reactor, a small known volume of the liquid sample was taken from the reactor and analyzed immediately for pH. Also, a known volume (approximately 5 mL) of liquid sample was collected in a sample bottle to determine the CO2 loading analytically. The samples in the sealed bottles were allowed to stand overnight in a water bath maintained at 298 ( 0.5 K, to verify crystallization in the liquid. From the initial and final values (at the time of sampling) of the pressure in the gas supply vessel and reactor, the total number of moles of CO2 transferred into the liquid was calculated. This gives the value of CO2 loading (in moles of CO2 per mole of amine) in the liquid. This value was cross-checked with the analytically determined CO2 loading (according to method of Blauwhoff8), and the results were in agreement within (4%. For certain salt concentrations and CO2 loadings of the solution, crystallization occurred in the reactor itself. However, the stepwise loading of the liquid was continued until it was difficult to collect reliable samples. At the end of experiment, the slurry of the liquid and solid (if crystallization occurred during the experiment) was collected in a vessel for further investigation (discussed in section 4.1). Because of the stepwise addition of CO2 during the absorption experiments, it was not practical to exactly duplicate experiments (solutions with identical CO2 loading). Instead, a large number of experiments was performed to overcome this deficiency. 4. Results and Discussion 4.1. Analysis of the Solids/Crystals. The slurry containing the crystals was filtered to recover the solids. The liquid and a small amount of the crystals dissolved in deionized water were analyzed with a 13C NMR spectrometer (Varian Unity 400 MHz) for identification of the constituent species. The sample preparation and conditions for the 13C NMR analysis were similar to those described by Hook.4 A small amount of the solids was washed five or six times with distilled water and subsequently analyzed using 13C NMR spectrometry. Figure 3 shows 13C NMR spectra of the CO2-loaded liquid and the washed crystals. In the case of the liquid, the 13C NMR spectrum shows peaks corresponding to CO32- (6)/HCO3- (5), RNHCOO- (3), RNH2 (1), and RNH3+ (4). The numbers within the parentheses are the numbers assigned to the various chemical species in the reaction scheme shown in Figure 1. For the unwashed crystals, there were no peaks corresponding to the carbamate or bicarbonate. The 13C NMR spectrum of the washed crystals includes peaks identical to those in the spectrum of the pure amino acid, indicating that the crystallized material is the protonated amine (4, which, in this case, is the zwitterionic form of the amino acid and is electrically neutral), which is one of the reaction products shown in the reaction scheme. The crystals washed with water were dissolved in deionized water, and the pH of the resulting solution was measured. The pH of the solution was acidic (5.7) and was close to the isoelectric point of taurine (5.3). 4.2. Crystallization in Loaded Solutions. Figure 4 shows a plot of the pH of a loaded solution as a function of CO2 loading (R). As can be expected, the shape of the curve is characteristic of the absorption of acid gases in aqueous amine solutions. The plateau in

Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., Vol. 42, No. 12, 2003 2835 Table 1. Carbamate Hydrolysis Reaction Rate and Equilibrium Constants amine monoethanolamine R-alanine β-alanine glycine taurine diethanolamine

temp (K)

kcarb (s-1)

291 6.0 × 291 3.3 × 10-5 291 1.3 × 10-5 291 2.0 × 10-5 298 291 4.0 × 10-5 10-6

Kcarb (mol m-3)

ref

19.5 107.2 30.9 33.1 50.9 206.5

Jensen et al.8 Jensen and Faurholt9 Jensen and Faurholt9 Jensen et al.10 Kumar et al.11 Jensen et al.8

concentration and above. It can be observed from Figure 4 that, with an increase in the molar salt concentration, crystallization occurs at lower CO2 loading (defined as the critical CO2 loading, Rcrit). Although the actual time for the completion of the experiments was high (approximately 140 min), the critical CO2 loading point was always reached relatively quickly (less than 40 min). For high salt concentrations, the critical CO2 loading at which crystallization occurred was low, and the time required to reach this point was relatively short. For very long absorption times, the contribution of the secondary carbamate hydrolysis reaction to the overall absorption capacity or CO2 loading of the liquid can become significant, which explains the experimentally observed final CO2 loading values higher than the theoretical maximum, 0.5. Table 1 lists the values of the carbamate hydrolysis reaction rate and equilibrium constants for various alkanolamines and amino acid salts. The carbamate hydrolysis equilibrium constant is defined by Figure 3. 13C NMR spectra of (a) the crystals washed with water and (b) the CO2-loaded aqueous potassium taurate solution

Kcarb )

Figure 4. Effect of CO2 loading on the pH of the aqueous potassium salt of taurine (at 298 K). The dark points in the figure denote the presence of solids in the solution.

the curve is due to the buffering action of the amine, corresponding to the basic strength (pKa) of taurine. The dark points in the curve indicate the visual presence of crystals in the solution (during the experiment in the reactor or afterward in the sample bottles). The first dark experimental data point from the origin of the abscissa for each amino acid salt concentration indicates the onset of crystallization. For a 1 M solution, no crystallization occurred in the loaded salt solution. Crystallization was observed for solutions of 2 M salt

CHCO3-CAmA CAmACOO-

(7)

Although a great deal of accurate information on equilibrium constants is available, data on the carbamate hydrolysis reaction rate constants are relatively scarce and old. The experimental data of Faurholt and co-workers8-11 are given in Table 1 for a few important alkanolamines and amino acids. The equilibrium constant of taurine was obtained experimentally from an independent study.6 From these data, it is clear that the carbamates of the primary amines are generally more stable than those of secondary amines. Similarly, the hydrolysis reactions for the primary amine carbamates are relatively slower than those of secondary amine carbamates and much slower than the preceding reaction of CO2 with the unreacted amine to form the carbamate (reaction 1, second-order rate constant k2 ≈ 103 m3 mol-1 s-1). It should be noted that the above constants are dependent on the ionic strength of the solution12 and the values provided here were determined for low amine concentrations. Assuming that the kcarb value of taurine is comparable to that of glycine, the maximum contribution of the carbamate hydrolysis reaction to the CO2 loading can be 4%. This value corresponds to a reaction/absorption time of 40 min, the time needed to reach Rcrit for the unloaded 2 M amino acid salt solution. In the above analysis, the highest possible carbamate concentration of RcritCAmA,0 was assumed to be present (hypothetically) at the beginning of the reaction. Hence, it is unlikely that there is a significant concentration of carbamate hydrolysis products (such as bicarbonate or carbonate) at the critical CO2 loading point. For the present system, the rapid onset of crystallization and the analysis of the precipitate itself make clear that the crystallized product is

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Table 2. Estimated Concentration of Amino Acida in the Loaded Solutions at the Critical CO2 Loading Point CAmA,0 (mol m-3) × 10-3 0.98 1.92 2.48 2.91 3.46 3.83

Rcrit mol of CO2 mol of AmA

(

0.450 0.366 0.301 0.202 0.170

)

Table 3. Absorption of Pure CO2 in 2.5 M Aqueous Potassium Salts of Amino Acids at 295.5 K4

( )( CO32-

CAmAH+ (kg m-3)

CAmAH+/Swb

108.0 114.4 108.8 89.3 81.5

0.99 1.05 1.00 0.82 0.75

a Species 4 in Figure 1. b S is the solubility of taurine in water w at 298 K (109 kg m-3).

not likely to be a bicarbonate/carbonate salt and instead must be the protonated amine or zwitterionic form of taurine, as was already indicated by the solid NMR analysis. Because of the discrete addition of CO2 during the absorption experiments, it was not practical to accurately find the critical CO2 loading point, and so experiments were repeated to determine Rcrit as closely as possible. The concentration of the amino acid (species 4 in Figure 1) at the critical loading point was calculated as the product of Rcrit and the initial amino acid salt concentration (CAmA,0), again with the assumption that no hydrolysis of the carbamate occurred until the critical CO2 loading point was reached. Using the above assumption, Table 2 shows the concentration of the zwitterionic form of the amino acid (component 4) at the critical CO2 loading point as a function of the initial amino acid salt concentration in the solution. In the fourth column of Table 2, the ratio of the concentration of component 4 to the solubility of taurine in pure water (CAmAH+/Sw) is given. As can be seen, the ratios (CAmAH+/Sw) at which crystallization of component 4 occurs are quite close to 1, which is to be expected if the crystallizing substance is taurine. With the above assumptions, the concentration of taurine at the critical CO2 loading can be approximated by the product of the initial salt concentration and the CO2 loading according to CAmAH+ ) RcritCAmA,0. The fact that CAmAH+ ≈ Sw (within ∼25%; see Table 2) also means that the critical CO2 loading is more or less inversely proportional to the initial amino acid salt concentration. The initial increase of CAmAH+/Sw with amino acid salt concentration and its subsequent drop below the value for water (see Table 2) can be attributed to the influence of different ionic species present in the solution on the solubility of taurine. In section 4.3, the experimental results for the solubility of taurine in the presence of different ionic species are given. Analysis of the Experimental Data of Hook.4 Hook4 qualitatively studied the CO2 absorption rate and capacity of aqueous potassium salts of sterically and nonsterically hindered amino acids. In the present discussion, the experimental data of Hook related to the primary amino acids (glycine, R-alanine, 2-methylalanine) alone will be considered for comparison with taurine; these data are summarized in Table 3. During CO2 absorption, crystallization was encountered for potassium salts of R-alanine and 2-methylalanine. However, no such phenomenon was observed for glycine. As the duration of the experiments was relatively long (∼20 h), there should be a significant contribution of the hydrolysis reaction to the CO2 absorption capacity, even for primary amines. The distribution of the absorbed CO2 between carbamate and carbonate/bicarbon-

amino acid

carbamate (%)

glycine R-alanine

31 10

a

Rcrit mol of CO2

)

HCO3(%)

mol of AmA

69 90

0.94

CAmAH+ tcrit Sm,wa (min) (mol m-3) (mol m-3) .200

2115

3310 1810

Solubility data obtained from Greenstein and Winitz.13

ate species is shown in Table 3 and was measured at the end of the equilibration time (∼20 h). Considering the time to reach Rcrit for R-alanine, the carbamate formation reaction (reaction 1) would be almost complete in comparison to the carbamate hydrolysis reaction (reaction 2), and therefore, the concentration of protonated species can be related to Rcrit by

CAmAH+ ) CAmA,0Rcrit

100 - (% carbamate) 100 for % carbamate < 100 (8)

In arriving at the above equation, the carbamate formation reaction 1 was assumed to be irreversible, as the equilibrium constants for primary amines is high7 and dissociation reactions 3-5 were neglected. For glycine, the maximum concentration of the amino acid (assuming complete hydrolysis of carbamate) could be 2500 mol m-3, which is still lower than the solubility of glycine (3310 mol m-3) in water at 295.5 K. In the case of alanine, the concentration of the protonated species at the critical loading point is significantly larger than the molar solubility of alanine in water. Consequently, the protonated species should crystallize out of the solution for alanine, as was observed experimentally. A simple way of increasing Rcrit is to add another base or buffer to the amino acid salt solution. Although this does not change the intrinsic absorption capacity of the amino acid salt solution, the added base or buffer simply increases the overall absorption capacity of the liquid. This modification of the process is, in principle, similar to the promoted carbonate process, in which amino acids or alkanolamines are used as rate promoters in the conventional hot carbonate process.1 In the present case, the addition of carbonate to the aqueous solution of amino acid salt results in an increase in the absorption capacity of the liquid. This could lead to a higher cyclical loading in the actual absorption process and, thereby, avoid crystallization in the absorber. Figure 5, as an example, shows the effect of the addition of potassium carbonate on the critical CO2 loading point for aqueous solutions of two different salt concentrations. The dark points in the figure indicate the presence of solids in the liquid. As expected, Rcrit increases with the initial carbonate concentration, and this increase in absorption capacity is solely due to the following reaction

CO32- + CO2 + H2O S 2HCO3-

(9)

For a 3 M potassium taurate solution containing 1000 mol m-3 of potassium carbonate, the incremental increase in absorption capacity is 0.359 mol of CO2/mol of AmA. This corresponds to an additional 1080 mol m-3 of CO2 absorbed in the liquid, which is the approximately equal to the amount that should have been absorbed by a 1000 mol m-3 carbonate solution, as per reaction stoichiometry. This result is logical if one considers the acidic dissociation constants (pKa) of the

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Figure 6. Effect of ionic species on the solubility of taurine in water at 298 °C.

Figure 5. Influence of the addition of potassium carbonate on the absorption capacity and Rcrit value of 3.0 and 2.0 M potassium taurate solutions at 298 K: (a) CAmA,0 ) 3000 mol m-3, (b) CAmA,0 ) 2000 mol m-3. The dark points in the figure denote the presence of solids in the solution. The legends indicate the initial molar concentrations of carbonate in the liquid.

amino acid (9.14) and the carbonate (10.34); reaction 10 should have gone to completion in comparison to the reaction between CO2 and amino acid salt at Rcrit. 4.3. Solubilities of Amino Acids in Salt Solutions. The deviation of CAmAH+/Sw from unity, as given in Table 2, could be due to the influence of the ionic species present in the loaded solution on the solubility of the protonated amine. Considerable information is available in the literature on the solubilities of amino acids in different salt solutions.13 In general, there is no clear rule for predicting the solubility behavior of amino acids in the presence of salts or as a function of ionic strength. However, it can be observed in the literature that salts with monovalent ions increase the solubility of amino acids in water and salts with polyvalent ions (like sodium sulfate) increase the solubility up to a certain salt concentration after which the solubility decreases

dramatically with further increases in the salt concentration. It should be noted that this behavior does not hold for all amino acids. For this reason and because of the absence of information on the influence of electrolytes on the solubility of taurine, experiments were carried out to understand qualitatively the solubility of taurine in different salt solutions at 295 K. The results are shown in Figure 6. In this figure, the solubility is given in dimensionless form as CAmAH+/Sw. For KCl and CaCl2, the solubility increases monotonically with increasing ionic strength of the solution. In the case of sodium sulfate, the solubility increases and then decreases. More importantly, Figure 6 also shows the solubility of taurine (component 4) in aqueous potassium taurate (component 1 in Figure 1) solutions. The trend for taurine follows that of aqueous sodium sulfate solutions, but the solubility of the amino acid drops below the value for pure water (CAmAH+/Sw < 1.0) at higher concentrations of potassium taurate. This behavior is similar to that observed during the CO2 absorption experiments described in section 4.2 (see Table 2). Generally, it can be seen that the values of CAmAH+/ Sw are again within (20% of unity for aqueous potassium taurate solutions, indicating that the absolute solubility of taurine in these solutions does not differ significantly from the solubility in pure water. Of course, one should note that, in the loaded solutions, other ions such as carbamate, bicarbonate, etc., are also present, which might influence the solubility differently. Additionally, the initial concentration of potassium taurate as given in Table 2 is not the same as the concentration of potassium taurate at the critical loading point. Nevertheless, this finding again supports the view that the precipitate is the zwitterionic form of taurine, and it gives some qualitative explanation for the behavior of CAmAH+/Sw observed in Table 2. 5. Influence of Crystallization on the Gas-Liquid Mass Transfer in Loaded Aqueous Amino Acid Salt Solutions The effect of the presence of a third phase (solid or immiscible liquid phase) on gas-liquid mass transfer has been widely investigated in the recent past and also extensively reviewed by Beenackers and van Swaaij.5,14 In particular, emphasis has been placed on those gasliquid-solid systems in which the presence of small

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particles in the liquid phase enhances the mass transfer at the gas-liquid interface. The enhancement is usually due to the favorable physical or chemical interaction between the small particles and the dissolved gas phase. However, some authors have shown that the presence of inert solid particles in the liquid phase has a negligible or negative influence on the gas-liquid mass transfer.15,16 For detailed information, the reader is referred to the above-mentioned review articles. In the present context also, crystallization of the reaction products during the absorption of CO2 in aqueous potassium taurate solutions for CO2 loading values above Rcrit might significantly influence the gasliquid mass-transfer characteristics (kLa) of the contactor. Therefore, a semiquantitative study was carried out on the influence of the presence/formation of solids on kLa in a stirred vessel. It is clear from the earlier discussions that, for amino acid salt concentrations larger than approximately 2000 mol m-3, the critical CO2 loading point is inversely related to the amino acid salt concentration in the liquid. In the current investigation, the physical absorption of N2O in unloaded and loaded aqueous potassium taurate solutions was studied to determine the effect of CO2 loading (R) on the volumetric mass-transfer coefficient, kLa. 5.1. Experimental Section. An aqueous solution of potassium taurate with a concentration of 2000 mol m-3 was prepared using the procedure described in section 3.1. The solution was placed in a stirred vessel and loaded with pure CO2 to a predetermined value using the method given in section 3.3. The loaded solution was collected in a gastight vessel, and a known volume (615 cm3) of this liquid was transferred to an another stirred reactor (volume ) 2060 cm3, i.d. ) 0.11 m) containing a high-intensity, gas-inducing stirrer in the liquid phase and four symmetrically mounted stainless steel baffles. The stirred reactor was also provided with digital temperature, stirred speed, and pressure indicators, and these data were recorded by a data acquisition system. Two gas-phase stirrers (propeller type) were provided on the shaft of the high-intensity stirrer. The reactor was connected to a vacuum pump and gas supply vessel by a two-way valve. After the transfer of the unloaded or loaded solution to the stirred reactor, mild vacuum was applied to reduce the gas-phase pressure to approximately 48 kPa. The stirring was started, and the liquid was allowed to equilibrate with the gas phase for approximately 60 min. This also provided sufficient time for the the temperature of the contents of the reactor to be adjusted to the desired absorption temperature. The gas phase contained some remaining air and water vapor, as well as CO2 [specifically the (equilibrium) partial pressure of CO2, which depends mainly on R, salt concentration, and temperature]. After this period, stirring was stopped, and the gas-phase pressure was recorded (pinert). The reactor was filled with pure N2O from the gas supply vessel to a pressure of approximately 120 kPa (po). The stirrer was started, and the pressure (p) in the reactor was recorded by the computer as a function of time. A stirrer speed of 800 rpm was used in all of the experiments reported here. The liquid-phase mass-transfer coefficient was calculated from the following equation, obtained from the mass balance of N2O in the gas phase

[

]

pN2O,0 k ) kLat ln k+1 (k + 1)pN2O - kpN2O,0

(10)

Figure 7. Influence of solid reaction products on the volumetric mass-transfer coefficient (kLa) during the absorption of N2O in unloaded and CO2-loaded aqueous potassium taurate solutions at 298 K. The concentration of the amino acid salt is 2000 mol m-3. The dotted line is the trend line.

where

VG mVL pN2O,0 ) po - pinert k)

pN2O ) p - pinert

(11) (12) (13)

A linear regression of eq 10 can be used to obtain the value of kLa. In the interpretation of the results, the physical solubility (m) of N2O in a loaded potassium taurate solution was considered to be identical to that in an unloaded solution of similar concentration and was obtained from the experimental data of Kumar et al.17 5.2. Results and Discussion. The reactor was operated at a stirrer speed slightly less than the value at which the induction of the gas into the liquid occurred. Therefore, the interfacial area for the gas-liquid mass transfer is mainly the surface of the liquid, although this surface was very turbulent. At the same time, the stirrer speed was high enough to keep all of the solids suspended in the liquid. In the absence of gas induction, the influence of the solids on the coalescence or breakup of gas bubbles (and hence on the interfacial area, a) can be neglected. Figure 7 shows the effect of CO2 loading on the volumetric mass-transfer coefficient (kLa). The dark points in the figure indicate measurements made in the presence of crystals in the loaded solution. In the absence of solids, there seems to be no numerically significant (within the experimental accuracy) influence of R on kLa, although one could see a clear but marginal decrease in kLa with CO2 loading. As sufficient time was provided for the equilibration of the loaded solution with the gas phase in the stirred reactor prior to the actual experiment with N2O (to avoid errors due to possible mass transfer of CO2 from the liquid to the gas phase during the absorption of N2O), the decrease in kLa with CO2 loading should probably be attributed to the marginal increase in the viscosity of the solution due to the CO2 loading. However, in the presence of crystals, a clear and sharp decrease in kLa with CO2 loading can be observed. The decrease in kLa due to the presence at the gas-liquid interface of solid particles that are inert

Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., Vol. 42, No. 12, 2003 2839

to the dissolved solute can be explained in terms of the following widely accepted reasons: (1) The presence of the solids causes an increase in the apparent slurry viscosity compared to that of the solids-free liquid. As a result, the value of kL can be reduced as a consequence of the lowering of the effective diffusivity of gas in the liquid.18 The solid particles cause some blockage of the gas-liquid interface.5 It should be noted that, above the Rcrit value, the solid fraction (hold-up) in the solution increases proportionally with the CO2 loading and there seems to be a definite relationship between the CO2 loading and the value of kLa. For solid particles of size greater than the film thickness (i.e., greater than ∼200 µm), a number of studies have correlated the experimental data of kLa and solids hold-up (s) using relations similar to the following19,20

kLa (kLa)o

of the model solution differs from that of the loaded potassium taurate solution. The crystallization of the reaction product at loadings above Rcrit in CO2-loaded potassium taurate solutions can have a significant effect on the gas absorption rate. Indeed, the presence of solids in the liquid phase during (inert) N2O absorption has a significant effect on the volumetric mass-transfer coefficient at the gas-liquid interface for a stirred vessel. As the solids have no interaction (either physical or chemical) with N2O, kLa was found to decrease significantly with CO2 loading above the Rcrit value. This decrease should mostly probably be attributed to the decrease in the effective interfacial area for mass transfer resulting from the physical blockage of the gas-liquid interface by the solid particles. Acknowledgment

) A - Bs

(14)

where A and B are constants. For the present case, where there is most probably a distribution in the size of solid particles, the actual mechanism behind the decrease in kLa for loading above Rcrit could be quite complex, and it is beyond the scope of the present work to investigate this issue in detail. It can be concluded that, for solutions of higher amino acid salt concentration (say, 4000 mol m-3), the solid fraction in the slurry will be very high, even for moderately high CO2 loadings. This example study shows that this fact can significantly affect the volumetric mass-transfer coefficient of the gas-liquid contactor. 6. Conclusions A semiquantitative investigation on the crystallization phenomenon that occurs during the absorption of CO2 in aqueous amino acid salt solutions has been carried out using the potassium salt of taurine as a model amino acid salt. The 13C NMR analysis of the crystallized solid product showed that it was the protonated amine (the zwitterionic form of taurine), which is one of the reaction products. From the experiments conducted to study the relationship between the critical CO2 loading (i.e., the point at which crystallization occurs) and the initial amino acid salt concentration, it was found that the critical CO2 loading (Rcrit) was more or less inversely proportional to the initial amino acid salt concentration (CAmA,0)

Rcrit )

S CAmA,0

As the estimated concentration of taurine at Rcrit in the loaded solution was found to differ (although not significantly) from the solubility of taurine in water, the solubility behavior of taurine in water in the presence of different types of inorganic salts and potassium taurate was studied. Although the solubility behavior of taurine in water in the presence of different types of ions seems to be complex, its behavior in the presence of potassium taurate follows the same trend as the estimated concentration of taurine at the critical CO2 loading point. This can be regarded only as a qualitative indication of the behavior, however, as the ionic strength

This work is part of the research program of the Centre for Separation Technology (CST), which is a collaboration between The Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research (TNO) and the University of Twente. We also acknowledge H. J. Moed and Wim Leppink for the construction of experimental setups. Nomenclature A ) constant, dimensionless a ) interfacial area for mass transfer, m2 m-3 B ) constant, dimensionless C ) concentration, mol m-3 k ) constant, VG/(VLm), dimensionless Kcarb ) carbamate hydrolysis reaction equilibrium constant, mol m-3 kcarb ) carbamate hydrolysis reaction rate constant, s-1 kL ) liquid-side mass-transfer coefficient, m s-1 m ) physical solubility, (CN2O,l/CN2O,g)eq, dimensionless p ) partial pressure, Pa S ) solubility of the amino acid, kg m-3 Sm ) molar solubility of amino acid, mol m-3 t ) time, s tcrit ) time at which crystallization occurred during absorption, s VG ) volume of the gas phase, m3 VL ) volume of the liquid phase, m3 Greek Symbols R ) loading, mol of CO2 (mol of AmA)-1 Rcrit ) critical CO2 loading, mol of CO2 (mol of AmA)-1 s ) solids hold-up, dimensionless Subscripts 0 ) at time t ) 0 AmA ) amino acid salt AmACOO- ) carbamate AmAH+ ) amino acid g ) gas inert ) inerts l ) liquid N2O ) nitrous oxide o ) absence of solids w ) water

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Received for review August 2, 2002 Revised manuscript received March 12, 2003 Accepted March 19, 2003 IE0206002