High-Resolution Data Sets Unravel the Effects of Sources and

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Environmental Processes

High-resolution datasets unravel the effects of sources and meteorological conditions on nitrate and its gas-particle partitioning Xurong Shi, Athanasios Nenes, Zhimei Xiao, Shaojie Song, Haofei Yu, Guoliang Shi, Qianyu Zhao, Kui Chen, Yinchang Feng, and Armistead G. Russell Environ. Sci. Technol., Just Accepted Manuscript • DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b06524 • Publication Date (Web): 22 Feb 2019 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on February 23, 2019

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Environmental Science & Technology

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High-resolution datasets unravel the effects of sources

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and meteorological conditions on nitrate and its

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gas-particle partitioning

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Xurong Shi †, Athanasios Nenes‡,§,||, Zhimei Xiao⊥, Shaojie Song#, Haofei Yu∇,

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Guoliang Shi†,*,Qianyu Zhao†, Kui Chen⊥, Yinchang Feng†, Armistead G. Russell○

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†State

Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Urban Ambient Air Particulate Matter Pollution Prevention and Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China. ‡ Laboratory of Atmospheric Processes and their Impacts, School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, CH-1015, Switzerland § Institute of Chemical Engineering Sciences, Foundation for Research and Technology Hellas, Patras, Greece, GR-26504 || Institute for Environmental Research and Sustainable Development, National Observatory of Athens, Palea Penteli, Greece GR-15236 ⊥ Tianjin Eco-Environmental Monitoring Center. # School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA. ∇ Department of Civil, Environmental and Construction Engineering, University of Central Florida. ○ School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0512 * Corresponding author: Guoliang Shi ([email protected])

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ACS Paragon Plus Environment


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ABSTRACT

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Nitrate is one of the most abundant inorganic water-soluble ions in fine particulate

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matter (PM2.5). However, the formation mechanism of nitrate in the ambient

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atmosphere, especially the impacts of its semi-volatility and the various existing

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forms of “N”, remain under-investigated. In this study, hourly ambient observations

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of speciated PM2.5 components (NO3-, SO42-, etc.) were collected in Tianjin, China.

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Source contributions were analyzed by PMF/ME2 (Positive Matrix Factorization

36

using the Multilinear Engine 2) program, and pH were estimated by ISORROPIA-II,

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to investigate the relationship between pH and nitrate. Five sources (factors) were

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resolved: secondary sulfate (SS), secondary nitrate (SN), dust, vehicle and coal

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combustion. SN and pH showed a triangle-shaped relationship. When SS were high,

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the fraction of nitrate partitioning into the aerosol phase exhibits a characteristic

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“S-curve” relationship with pH for different seasons. An index (ITL) is developed and

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combined with pH to explore the sensitive regions of “S-curve”. Controlling the

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emissions of anions (SO42-. Cl-), cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, etc.) and gases (NOx, NH3, SO2,

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etc.) will change pH, potentially reducing or increasing SN. The findings of this work

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provide an effective approach for exploring the formation mechanisms of nitrate

46

under different influencing factors (sources, pH and IRL).

2


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TOC art

47

0.6

3

-

ε (NO ε(NO )3 )

nitrate (μg/m3)

Secondary sulfate 1.0 contribution (μg/m3) 0.8

0.4

0.2

0.0 -2

0

2

pH

4

pH pH

48 49

3


6

8


50

INTRODUCTION

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Nitrate is a dominant inorganic component of PM2.5 during intense haze periods in

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China,1-4 and arises from secondary formation.5-6 Nitrate is known to form through

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different chemical pathways during daytime and nighttime:7-9 NO2 homogeneously

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reacting with OH radical is the most important HNO3 formation pathway during

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daytime; heterogeneous hydrolysis of NO3 and N2O5 are the most significant

56

pathways of particulate nitrate during nighttime (Eq. S1-S6 of the Supporting

57

Information). Owing to its extremely low volatility, acidic H2SO4 resides in aerosol

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and tends to associate with NH3/NH4+ from gas-phase to form secondary ammonium

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sulfate/bisulfate. When sufficient amounts of ammonia are present, HNO3 can react

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with NH3 to form ammonium nitrate.10-11

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Nitrate concentrations in particulate matter (PM) are influenced by meteorological

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conditions (temperature (T), relative humidity (RH)), precursor source emissions (i.e.,

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NOx), the presence of other ionic species and complex gas and condensed phase

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chemical reactions. When relative humidity is very low, aerosol nitrate tends to be in

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the form of solid NH4NO3 according to the reaction𝑁𝐻4𝑁𝑂3(s)↔𝐻𝑁𝑂3(𝑔) + 𝑁𝐻3(

66

𝑔). Increases in temperature shifts the equilibrium to the right hand side, meaning that

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nitrate remains in the gas-phase and particulate nitrate concentration is low.12 When

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an aqueous phase exists in the aerosol (promoted by higher RH and lower T), it tends

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to completely dissolve inorganic nitrate; the volatility of nitrate then becomes strongly

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influenced by the acidity, or pH, of the aerosol aqueous phase.12-17 Aerosol acidity is 4


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not only important for aerosol nitrate, but also drives the gas-particle partitioning of

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other acidic/basic semi-volatile species.15-17 Acidity can also play an important role in

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the formation of secondary organic aerosols,13-14 and the solubility of trace nutrients

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that drives the toxicity and nutrient availability in atmospheric aerosol.18-21

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Thermodynamics and analysis of ambient data show that, under conditions of constant

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temperature and aerosol liquid water, the fraction of nitrate in deliquesced aerosol,

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ε(NO3-) (NO3- /(NO3-+HNO3(g))) exhibits an “S-curve” response to aerosol pH (Figure

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S1).10, 22-23 Sufficiently high pH values, usually above 2.5 to 3,10, 24 ensures that most

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of the inorganic nitrate condenses onto the aerosol phase,17, 23, 25 but a pH below 1

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drives all nitrate back into the gas phase. pH in turn is determined by the relative

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amounts of aerosol water, NH4+, SO42-, NO3- and non-volatile cations (NVC) from

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numerous sources,26 and to a secondary degree organic species and mixing state.10, 27

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Source emission patterns, RH, and T are known to vary considerably over space and

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time, which makes it challenging to unravel the drivers for ambient nitrate, ε(NO3-),

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and aerosol pH.

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Here, we study the impact of source emissions and meteorological parameters (RH,

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T) on aerosol pH, aerosol nitrate concentrations and ε(NO3-). We first collected

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datasets of hourly ambient observations of speciated PM2.5 during summer in Tianjin,

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a megacity in northern China, and employed PMF/ME2 (Positive Matrix Factorization

90

using the Multilinear Engine 2, program) source apportionment tools to explore

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source emission patterns; the ISORROPIA-II thermodynamic model28 was applied to

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estimate hourly aerosol pH, and to understand its role on nitrate partitioning and 5



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source. We chose summertime because of the more prominent sensitivity of aerosol

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nitrate to pH than in other seasons due to the favorable conditions of high temperature

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and RH for semi-volatile species in the gas phase. Additionally, summertime

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meteorological conditions also favor the presence of a metastable aqueous phase,

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which greatly facilitates the interpretation of data and thus further enhance the

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robustness of pH estimates. Furthermore, the number of pollutant source categories

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are fewer in summer than other seasons, which simplifies the attributions of nitrate to

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its formation pathways. Few field-based studies exist that explore how aerosol pH,

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RH, T, and source contributions affect nitrate concentrations and ε(NO3-),10

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particularly in China.

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METHODS

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Sampling. Online aerosol and gaseous measurements with 1-hour time

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resolution were conducted in Tianjin, a megacity in northern China, from August 1st,

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2015 to August 23th, 2015. The sampling site was located in a residential area, about

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200 m away from a major roadway with dense automobile traffic. Mass

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concentrations of major water-soluble ions (NH4+, Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, SO42-, NO3-,

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Cl-, F-, NO2-) and semi-volatile species in the gas phase (HCl, HNO3, NH3) were

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measured by URG9000B samplers (AIM, URG Corporation) with two ICs.

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Methanesulfonic acid (20 mM) was used for cation analysis and 0.08 mM

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Na2CO3/0.01 mM NaHCO3 was used for anion detection. Both ICs were operated in 6


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isocratic elution at a flow rate of 0.5 mL min-1. Concentrations of trace gases (NO2,

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SO2, CO, O3, NH3) were measured in hourly temporal resolution by Thermo Fisher

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Instruments Model 42i, Model 43i, Model 48i, Model 49i, Model 17i instrument,

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respectively.

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pH estimation. Aerosol pH is a fundamental property determined by the

119

amount of hydronium ion, H+, and aerosol water content (Eq.1).17, 29 Owing to the

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lack of an established direct measurement of aerosol pH, thermodynamic analysis of

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ambient composition data is used to constrain acidity, a method which has been

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widely used recently.24, 28, 30-36 In this study, the ISORROPIA-II inorganic model was

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employed to estimate gas-particle partitioning, liquid water content and pH for the

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Na+-K+-Ca2+-Mg2+-NH4+-SO42--NO3--Cl--H2O aerosol system.20,

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hourly samples were introduced into ISORROPIA-II to obtain aerosol pH and model

126

concentrations of chemical species (NH3, NO3-, SO42-, Cl-, etc.) in the gas and

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aerosol phase at thermodynamic equilibrium. Input concentration data included

128

water-soluble ions in PM2.5 and semi-volatile components in the gas phase (HCl,

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HNO3, NH3) along with RH and T. In this sampling campaign, RH ranged from

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47.2% to 79.4% with an average value of 60.1%. The forward (in which known

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quantities are temperature, relative humidity and the total concentrations of NH3,

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H2SO4, Na, HCl, HNO3, and non-volatile cations Na, K, Ca, Mg) and metastable

133

modes of ISORROPIA-II were selected for the simulations (CaSO4 do precipitate

134

here).

135

calculated as follows:

39-40

36-39

In total, 387

The detailed information was presented in SI. Aerosol pH was

7



𝑝𝐻 = - 𝑙𝑜𝑔10(𝛾𝐻 + 𝑚𝐻 + )

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(𝐸𝑞 . 1)

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where 𝑚𝐻 + and 𝛾𝐻 + are the molality (mol∙kg-1 water) and the molality-based

138

activity coefficient of hydrogen ions, respectively.17, 29 𝛾𝐻 + is assumed to be unity in

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ISORROPIA-II when single-ion activities for H+ are required,28 which introduces

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only minor uncertainties in pH calculations.40

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Source apportionment. Source contribution was calculated with a 1-h time

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solution by PMF/ME2, a widely used receptor model developed by Paatero.41-42 Prior

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information was incorporated into the model in the forms of auxiliary equations,

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which were included as additional terms 𝑸∂𝒖𝒙 in an enhanced object function

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𝑸𝒆𝒏𝒉.43-44 The equation can be written as follows:

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𝑄𝑒𝑛 h = 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 + 𝑄∂𝑢𝑥

(𝐸𝑞 . 2)

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One of the common auxiliary equations is a “pulling equation” that “pulls” 𝑓𝑝𝑘 (for

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instance) toward the specific target value ∂𝑝𝑘:

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𝑄∂𝑢𝑥 = 2

(𝑓𝑝𝑘 - ∂𝑝𝑘)2 𝜎∂𝑢𝑥 𝑝𝑘

(𝐸𝑞 . 3)

2

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where 𝜎∂𝑢𝑥 𝑝𝑘

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element of factor loading. More description of ME2 was presented in SI. In this study,

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a data set with 387 rows (number of samples, with 1-h temporal resolution) by 12

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columns (number of species) was introduced into PMF/ME2 to apportion pollutant

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source contributions. The species included NO3-, SO42-, NH4+, Cl-, F-, Ca2+, Mg2+, K+,

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Na+, OC, and EC. Source profiles from previous studies

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pulling. Ca2+ is the marker for dust46; EC and OC are the markers of vehicle

is the uncertainty associated with the pulling equation; 𝑓𝑝𝑘 is the

8


26, 45

were used for factor

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(exhaust)47; OC, EC and Cl- are the source markers of coal combustion48; the markers

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of secondary sulfate (SS) and secondary nitrate (SN) are ammonium, sulfate and

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nitrate49.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

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Water-soluble ions, pH, and sources. Time series of the major

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water-soluble ions (SNA: SO42-, NO3-, NH4+), and meteorological conditions are

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presented in Figure 1. The mean ambient temperature was 301.4K (298.2K-303.8K),

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and mean RH was 60.1% (47.2%-79.4%). The highest concentrations of NO3-, SO42-,

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and NH4+ were 49.9, 40.9, 27.5 μg m-3, while the lowest were 3.8, 4.0, 3.2 μg m-3,

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respectively. Concentrations of semi-volatile species including NO3- and NH4+ were

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negatively correlated with temperature and positively correlated with RH. SO42- was

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positively correlated with T and RH (Table S1). SO42- was positive correlated with T

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and RH (Table S1). Total ammonia (molar concentration of gas-phase ammonia and

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aerosol ammonium, [TA]) largely exceeded the 2:1 stoichiometric ratio for

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(NH4)2SO4, [TS] (i.e., [TA]-2[TS] > 0).

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The calculated aerosol pH ranged from 2.6 to 4.6, with an average of 3.4±0.5 (mean

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± standard deviation) (Figure 1); the correlations (r) between measured and modeled

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concentrations were 0.98 for NO3-, 0.98 for NH4+and 0.97 for NH3 (g); and the

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regression slopes were 1.02, 1.08, 1.00 for NO3-, NH4+ and NH3 (g) (see Figure S2,

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black point) which has been used in the past to support that the pH values are 9



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representative.11, 50 Additionally, the root mean squared error (RMSE) and normalized

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mean bias (NMB) between measured and modeled concentrations were 2.62, 3.63,

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4.03 and -0.09, -0.27, 0.16 for NO3-, NH4+ and NH3 (g) (see Table S2). More detailed

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information are presented in SI. In our data, the agreement between estimated and

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observed gas-phase NH3 values does not in itself ensure that the pH values are

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well-constrained – because most of the total ammonia resides in the gas phase, and

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hence its vapor pressure is insensitive to pH errors.25 Concentrations of inorganic

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species in the aerosol and gas-phase are reproduced well by the thermodynamic

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calculations, including NH4+, suggesting that the partitioning fractions of the

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semi-volatile inorganics NH3/ NH4+ and HNO3/NO3- are well captured (Figure S2).

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Additionally, sensitivity tests were also performed. One set of tests involved

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excluding NVCs (all NVC concentrations were set to 0, and using the observed NH4+)

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for calculating pH (identified as “pH*”), to show the importance of using NVCs in

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ISORROPIA-II for the observed conditions. In Figure S2, regression slopes of

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measured vs. predicted values of NH4+, NO3-, and NH3(g) were from 1.00 to 1.13 and

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R2’s were from 0.97 to 0.99, suggesting that ISORROPIA II captured the partitioning

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of nitrate and ammonium and that, in this case, the presence of NVCs had a limited

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impact on the modeled partitioning. Besides, fitted regression equations between pH

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estimated by E-AIM and by ISORROPIA were shown in Figure S2 (b). The estimated

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pH were 3.59 (ISORROPIA) and 3.03 (E-AIM), and the correlation (r) of these two

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models’ results was 0.74, indicated that the pH from two models were similar. Given

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above information, and that for the RH, T values here a single (metastable) aqueous 10


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phase is present suggest the summertime pH values calculated are well constrained by

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the data.

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A matrix of 387 rows (number of samples, with 1-h temporal resolution) by 12

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columns (number of chemical species) was introduced into ME2. Five factors were

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resolved by the model and identified by the source markers. Qmain was about 2750

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(theoretical Q=387×12-5×(387+12)=2649). The secondary source factors including

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secondary sulfate (SS) and secondary nitrate (SN) are formed through complex

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chemical reactions involving gas precursors. SS and SN were characterized by the

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presence of ammonium, sulfate, and nitrate.49 In this work, SN extracted by

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PMF/ME2 include only condensed phase nitrate, but not nitric acid vapor. The dust

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factor was determined by relatively high Ca2+ abundance;46 the vehicle factor was

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distinguished by the high weights of carbonaceous species (EC and OC);47 and the

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coal factor was characterized by large proportions of OC, EC, and Cl- .48 Detailed

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source profiles were provided in Supporting Information (Figure S3). In addition, the

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hourly time series of contributions from different sources/factor were also calculated

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by ME2 (Figure S3), with average contributions ranked as SS (contributed 25.2% to

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PM2.5), SN (contributed 23.0%), dust (contributed 22.7%), coal (contributed 16.5%),

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and vehicle (contributed 12.6%). The fitted regression of modeled against measured

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hourly concentrations of PM2.5 are shown in Figure S3(d). The regression slope (0.89)

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and R2 (0.89) indicate that the performance of source apportionment is satisfactory.

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(Figure 1)

11



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Diurnal variations of NO3-, sources, and pH. The observed diurnal

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variations of NO3- and pH are presented in Figure 2. To better explore the underlying

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causes of such variation, we compared the diurnal variations of NO3- with those for

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pH, sources, and other ions (Figure 2). The temporal patterns of NO3- exhibited more

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similarities with pH compared to SO42- and NH4+. It was partially because low pH can

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lead to the loss of semi-volatile NO3-, while high pH can enhance nitrate partitioning

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into particle phase.17 Higher SO42- fraction in the aerosol, which is also associated

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with [TS] in the region, tends to decrease pH.26

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Figure. 2b shows that aerosol pH, NO3-, HNO3 (g) concentrations and ε(NO3-)

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(calculated as [NO3-]/([HNO3]+[NO3-]), with [HNO3] and [NO3-] being the mole

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concentration of gas-phase HNO3 and aerosol NO3, respectively (in mole m-3) all have

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distinct diurnal variations. Aerosol pH was relatively lower during daytime, and

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higher during nighttime (Figure 2a). HNO3 (g) concentration (μg m-3) was higher in

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daytime than nighttime, while NO3- concentration (μg m-3) and ε(NO3-) were higher

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during nighttime than daytime. Such diurnal patterns of HNO3 (g) can be explained as

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follows. O3 concentration and atmospheric temperature were higher during daytime

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(Figure S4) and the diurnal patterns of HNO3 (g) concentration was opposite to that of

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NOx (NO+NO2, reactive precursors of nitrate, Figure S5), suggesting that high

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gaseous HNO3 during daytime was photochemically driven.51-52 The high nighttime

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RH and lower T caused nocturnal NO3- to be much higher than daytime (Figure S4),

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because of the nitrate equilibrium constant and aerosol liquid water increases so that

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equilibrium is shifted to particle phase. Compared with the aerosol pH led by 12


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(NH4)2SO4, the formation of deliquesced NH4NO3 in the aerosol phase tends to

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increase pH, which in turn favors even more condensation of nitrate and associated

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ammonium from the gas phase.10-11 Higher RH in the nighttime than in daytime also

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promotes higher water content in the aerosol, which drives much of the diurnal

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variability in aerosol pH.24,

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partitioning of nitrate, and it was higher during nighttime and lower during daytime

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(Figure 2b). The diurnal variation of ε(NO3-) suggested that most of the nitrate was in

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particle phase, especially during morning and nighttime. Most of the nitrate volatilizes

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during the day, closely following the trends of T, RH and aerosol pH. In this study,

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the mean ε(NO3-) was 76.7%, which is lower than that of Song et al. (99.6%, Beijing,

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China)40 and higher than that of Guo et al. (45.67%, Pasadena, CA. USA).25 This

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result was likely because the sampling campaign of this study was conducted in

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August (versus winter for Song et al.), and the mean estimated pH in this study was

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3.4 vs. 4.2 in Song et al.40 Higher temperature and more acidic environment are

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expected to enhance nitrate volatilization and its partitioning to gas phase, leading to

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lower ε(NO3-) in this study.10-11, 17, 20

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Additionally, ε(NO3-) reflects the particle-gas

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(Figure 2)

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Emissions from different factors can directly influence aerosol pH.26 Figure S6

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shows diurnal variations of factor contributions and pH. SS is negatively correlated

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with pH (especially during daytime) (Figure S6c), as sulfuric acid is a strong acid

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with a very low vapor pressure, thus increased temperatures and lowered RH are

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expected to lead to reduced aerosol water, consequently concentrating acid. This in 13



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turn leads to a persistently acidic aerosol11,

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when concentrations of other aerosol components decrease while the relative

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proportion of sulfate increases.15,

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contributions and pH were found to be positive (Figure S6c) because the pH of pure

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deliquesced ammonium nitrate (and other nitrate salts with NVCs) is much higher

270

than the pH associated with an aerosol dominated by SS.25

26

15

which becomes increasingly acidic

Unlike SS, the correlations between SN

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Figure S6 also presented diurnal variations of contributions from other

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sources/factors, and pH. Aerosol pH starts decreasing at 7:00 am, and reaches a

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minimum at about 2:00 pm, a pattern similar to those for dust and coal contributions,

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but different from vehicle contribution. The heating and expansion of the boundary

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layer generally leads to the diurnal cycle of RH – that generates a corresponding

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diurnal cycle in aerosol liquid water. These temporal changes induce a pH diurnal

277

cycle,17, 24, 53 which together with the diurnal temperature cycle, generates the diurnal

278

cycle of nitrate partitioning as seen in the data seen here (Figure 2b). However,

279

cations that originate from dust and coal combustion (NH3/NH4+, Ca2+, etc)54 can

280

readily increase aerosol pH,26 so a part of the diurnal pH cycle may be driven by

281

emissions – especially from NVCs (Figure S6e). Coal combustion and vehicular

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traffic also contribute acidic precursors (SO2, NOx) which modulate acidity as

283

described above in terms of contributing SS and SN.

284

Impacts of aerosol pH on secondary nitrate formation under

285

different sources contributions. When SN contribution (calculated from ME2)

286

is plotted against pH, an interesting “triangle” relationship can be observed (Figure 3); 14


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four sub-regions (identified as A to D) are identified, based on time period,

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meteorological regime, and source/factor contributions (Figure 3, 4, S7).

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Region A contains relatively few points, mostly observed at night, and is

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characterized by high PM2.5, SNA concentrations and moderate aerosol pH (~ 3.2).

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Samples in Region B were mostly collected between 0:00-8:00, and were

292

characterized by moderate RH, NO3-, NO2, as well as low SO42-, O3, and temperature.

293

Hence, SN in this region were associated with liquid-phase reactions. It should be

294

noted that aerosol pH in Region B was higher than in other regions (Figure 3) because

295

of its higher liquid water content (Figure S8 and S9). Samples in regions B have

296

considerable dust contributions and low contributions from SS (Figure 4), which

297

further increases pH. Also, from Figure 4, as aerosol pH increases, the contributions

298

of SN decreases in Region B (Figure 3), owing to the reductions in total nitrate –

299

which in turn is linked to reductions in NOx emissions. SS concentrations were

300

relatively lower in region B (Figure 4), which could help promoting aerosol pH

301

increase, as the importance of NVC tends to promote pH to higher values. The large

302

amounts of NH3 present, which tends to maintain pH high enough to readily promote

303

NO3 condensation, implies that reductions in SS also decreases SN, because

304

reductions in aerosol liquid water associated with SS loss promotes volatilization of

305

nitrate back to the gas-phase.

306

Samples in Region C were collected between 13:00-00:00, and mostly between

307

19:00-00:00. Temperature, O3, and RH were all at moderate levels in this region

308

(Figure S7), suggesting that secondary nitrate in Region C was likely formed through 15



309

both liquid- and gas-phase and photochemical reactions. Samples in Region D were

310

mostly collected between 9:00-17:00, and were characterized by high O3, temperature

311

(306.0K), and SO42- concentrations, in conjunction with low aerosol pH, NO3-

312

concentration, ε(NO3-), and RH (42.1%) (Figure S7). The secondary nitrate in this

313

region was likely formed through photochemical reactions. In Region D, T was

314

relatively higher and RH was relatively lower, which would drive nitrate into its gas

315

phase and decrease the nitrate concentrations in particle phase. The aerosols in this

316

region were very acidic (pH from 2-2.5) as a result of high liquid H+ concentration

317

and low water content in the same time period (Figure S8, S9). Also, dust contributed

318

poorly in this region, and thus had little influence on elevating aerosol pH.

319

(Figure 3, Figure 4)

320

Nitrate partitioning “S-curve” in actual atmospheric environment.

321

For a NO3-- HNO3 (g) system, under a given constant T and RH, an ideal S-curve

322

relationship between particle-gas partitioning of semi-volatile species and aerosol pH

323

(see Figure S1) would be found,12 which can be applied to estimate aerosol pH and

324

aqueous fractions of semi-volatile species.11, 15 There are three regions in Figure S1.

325

Region (1) and (3) are pH-insensitive bands, where the ε(NO3-) changes slightly with

326

respect to pH change. Region (2) is a pH-sensitive band, where the ε(NO3-) changes

327

drastically with pH. For the ambient dataset, the pH-ε(NO3-) curve might be less

328

obvious because T, liquid water content, and ionic strength (activity coefficients) do

329

not remain constant. Here, we plotted ε(NO3-) (calculated from the measured mole

330

concentration of NO3- and HNO3(g)) ratio against aerosol pH (Figure S10). At first 16


Page 16 of 35

Page 17 of 35


331

glance, no obvious S-curve between ε(NO3-) and pH can be observed. However, after

332

conditional sampling of the data (i.e., when SS contributions are relatively higher, i.e.,

333

greater than 25 ug m-3; Figure S10(b)), the ambient samples do captured the

334

pH-ε(NO3-) sensitive band of the S-curve (Figure S1).

335

To empirically describe the relationships between ε(NO3-) ratio and pH, a

336

Boltzmann equation was applied to fit the curve of pH-ε(NO3-). The Boltzmann

337

equation can be used to fit a sigmoid shaped curve and has performed well in the

338

previous works55-56.

339

1

-

𝜀 (𝑁𝑂3 ) = 1 -

(𝑝𝐻 - 1.99)

1+𝑒

(𝐸𝑞 . 4)

0.65

340

Origin 8.5 software was employed to perform the curve fitting (χ² was 0.007 and R2

341

was 0.70) and the result was shown in Figure 5. The fitted curve in Figure 5a is only a

342

portion (sensitive region) of the S-curve, as the range in ambient aerosol pH covers

343

only a fraction of the pH range as encompassed by the entire S-curve (Figure S1). Eq.

344

4 was extrapolated to outside of the conditions as found in this study, specifically

345

from 0-2 and 4-8. Values of the simulated ε(NO3-) ratios (red points in Figure 5b)

346

were also calculated accordingly using (Eq. 4). Results of the extrapolation are

347

provided in Figure 5b, where the extrapolated data are shown as red points and the

348

actual ambient sample data are shown as black points. The results show that the

349

collected ambient samples (black points) were in the pH-ε(NO3-) sensitive region,

350

indicating that a small change of aerosol pH can have a considerable impact on

351

ε(NO3-) (Figure 5b), which reaches maximum at ε(NO3-) ~ 0.5. Nonetheless, there are

17



Page 18 of 35

352

still a few black points that deviate from the fitted sigmoid curve, possibly due to

353

uncertainties involved in curve fitting and analytical solution. The above statistical

354

analysis shows that an S-curve can be found for the ambient dataset in summer. The existence of an S-curve can also be found in thermodynamic estimations. As

355 356

shown in Eq.5- Eq.6:12

357

𝜀(

358

where HA is the Henry Law Constant for HNO3 in M atm-1; R is the ideal-gas constant

359

equal to 0.08205 atm L mol-1 K-1; T is the temperature in K; and L is the aerosol liquid

𝑁𝑂3-

10 -6𝐻𝐴𝑅𝑇𝐿

) = 1 + 10

360

water content in g

361

12,

362

𝜀(𝑁𝑂3- ) ≈ [𝐻 + ] + 𝐼

(𝐸𝑞. 5)

-6𝐻 𝑅𝑇𝐿 𝐴

m-3

3.2 × 106

(as estimated by ISORROPIA-II). Given that 𝐻𝐴 ≈ [𝐻 + ]

and defining 3.2RTL as the index ITL, we obtain: 𝐼𝑇𝐿

(𝐸𝑞. 6)

𝑇𝐿

363

Combining the index ITL, pH, and Eq(6), we can explain the shape of the

364

pH-ε(NO3-) relationship and help identifying the sensitive band of the S-curve. If [H+]

365

is in the range of 0.0001 to 0.01 (pH from 2 to 4), ε(NO3-) is sensitive to [H+]. In this

366

work, ITL ranges from 0.0001 to 0.0175, with an average of 0.0026, predominantly in

367

the sensitive range. When pH is less than 2, [H+] is higher than the maximum value of

368

ITL (0.0175), and the effects of varying T and L on ε(NO3-) can be ignored. When pH

369

is great than 3.3 (especially > 4), [H+] is lower than the minimum value of ITL

370

(0.0001), hence the variation of ambient T and L would greatly influence ε(NO3-)

371

(according to Figure 6, the number of scattered points increased when pH > 3.3).

372

Additionally, when pH is between 2 and 3.3, both [H+] and ITL can impact ε(NO3-). As

18


Page 19 of 35


373

observed from Figure 6, there are only limited amounts of scattered points between

374

pH 2-3.3.

375

Figure 6 also shows the relationships between pH and ε(NO3-) under different

376

meteorological conditions, and for different source categories (in μg m-3, as estimated

377

by ME2). The collected samples in the pH-ε(NO3-) sensitive band were characterized

378

by high SS contribution, moderate vehicle and dust contributions, and low coal

379

contribution. As shown in our previous work, SS dominates in low pH (2-3).26

380

Moderate dust contribution would provide non-volatile cations to associate with

381

sulfate and elevate pH. Additionally, moderate vehicle contribution can provide NH3

382

and NOx precursors for nitrate aerosol. The low coal contribution suggests relatively

383

low emissions from coal combustion, thus making the S curve more prominent. We

384

also performed sensitivity tests and found that if the concentrations of sulfate

385

decreases, the shape of ε(NO3-) can be “distorted” because aerosol liquid water is

386

appreciably changed as nitrate condenses and evaporates (Figure S11), something that

387

does not occur when SS dominates the liquid water uptake.

388

Figure 12 shows the relationship between ε(NO3-)-pH in other seasons (spring:

389

2015.4.30-2015.5.30 and winter: 2015.1.4-2015.2.10). Similarly, parts of the S-curves

390

were observed in spring and winter datasets that have higher SS contributions (Figure

391

7). For spring, the pH-sensitive band was fit to a sigmoid curve: ε(NO3 ) = 1 -

-

1

392

(𝑝𝐻 - 2.8)

1+𝑒

393

, (R2=0.67). For winter, the pH-insensitive band (right band, Fig 1) was

0.71

found, likely due to the considerable variability in aerosol liquid water, temperature,

19



394

and emissions patterns over the time period examined. ITL ranged from

395

0.0000-0.0094, with an average of 0.00067 for spring samples. So, the range of pH for

396

sensitive band of the S-curve should be from 2-4, which can be confirmed by Figure 7

397

(left side, spring). Additionally, ITL ranged from 0.0000-0.012, with an average of

398

0.0013 for winter samples, suggesting that the range of pH for sensitive band should

399

from 1-4. In Guo et al. (2017), the S-curves were found in the range of pH from -1 to

400

3 in winter. But in this work, pHs typically were higher than 3 in winter (see Figure

401

S12), so nitrate partitioning tends to reside in the upper “plateau” of the S-curve,

402

which are modulated by variations in T and L. Similar as in the summer, TN

403

(NO3-+HNO3 (g)) vs. pH for winter and spring seasons yield “triangles,” indicating

404

that similar emissions and chemical domains are responsible for the behavior. A

405

detailed discussion can be found in Supporting Information. (Figure 5, Figure 6, Figure 7)

406

407

IMPLICATIONS

408

The use of highly time resolved (hourly) observations of aerosol compositions over

409

multiple seasons allowed more detailed examination of the aerosol thermodynamics in

410

different seasons, and the relationships between aerosol composition, sources, pH, and

411

meteorological factors.

412

average pH of 3.4±0.5. The gas-particle partitioning of the observed semi-volatile

413

inorganic species (ammonia-ammonium and nitric acid-nitrate) are consistent with the

414

thermodynamics of the ammonia-sulfate-nitrate-NVC system. An interesting

In this study, aerosol pH ranges from 2.6 to 4.6, with an

20


Page 20 of 35

Page 21 of 35


415

“triangle” relationship was found between the SN contribution and pH. This was

416

found to primarily be linked to the emissions of nitrate precursors (NOx and NH3) and

417

physicochemical processes leading to SN formation. A triangular shape relationship

418

between SN and pH is found.

419

favorable for SN formation (i.e., lower temperatures, higher RH) the pH is pushed

420

towards the value of pure ammonium nitrate’s; as SS increases, pH decreases (left

421

side of triangle), while a higher fraction of NVCs raises pH because TN and SS

422

decrease (right side of triangle) when the air masses are cleaner.

In more polluted environments, in conditions

423

The use of hourly samples further support that the “S-curve” nitrate-nitric acid gas

424

and ammonium-ammonia gas partitioning relationships, particularly when SS levels

425

are higher, leading to greater aerosol water levels. The index (ITL) developed in this

426

work, can help determining when nitrate partitioning is in the pH-sensitive region.

427

This region is also where ammonia and NOx emissions control strategies are both

428

efficient in reducing the nitrate aerosol load, though sulfate reductions will be less

429

efficient. But at very high or low ITL’s, this substitution is less important. Given that

430

the ITL’s vary throughout the day, the use of hourly observations can be important as

431

24-hour samples can mis-identifying times when controls are effective.

432

433

SUPPORTING INFORMATION

434

Other figures needed to evaluate the conclusions in the paper are present in the

435

Supporting Information. 21



436

Figure S1 – S13

437

AUTHOR INFORMATION

438

Corresponding Author

439

* E-mail: [email protected]

440

Note

441

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Page 22 of 35

442

443

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

444

This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China

445

(41775149), National Key Research and Development Program of China

446

(2016YFC0208500, 2016YFC0208505), Special Scientific Research Funds for

447

Environment Protection Commonweal Section (Nos. 201509020), the Tianjin

448

Research

449

(14JCQNJC0810),

450

16JCQNJC08700), and the Blue Sky Foundation, Fundamental Research Funds for

451

the Central Universities. This publication was developed under Assistance Agreement

452

No. EPA834799 awarded by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency to Emory

453

University and Georgia Institute of Technology. It has not been formally reviewed by

454

EPA. The views expressed in this document are solely those of the authors and do not

455

necessarily reflect those of the Agency. EPA does not endorse any products or

Program

of

Application

Tianjin

Natural

Foundation Science

and

Advanced

Foundation

22


Technology

(17JCYBJC23000,

Page 23 of 35


456

commercial services mentioned in this publication. We also acknowledge support

457

from the project PyroTRACH (ERC-2016-COG) funded from H2020-EU.1.1. -

458

Excellent Science - European Research Council (ERC), project ID 726165. We also

459

thank Ms. G. Pavur for her help in preparing the manuscript.

460

23



461

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8420-8425. (53) Guo, H. Y.; Xu, L.; Bougiatioti, A.; Cerully, K. M.; Capps, S. L.; Hite Jr., J. R.; Carlton, A. G.; Lee, S. -H.; Bergin, M. H.; Ng, N. L.; Nenes, A.; Weber, R. J. Fine-particle water and pH in the southeastern United States. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2015, 15, 5211-5228. (54) Marmur, A.; Unal, A.; Mulholland, J. A.; Russell, A. G. Optimization-Based source apportionment of PM2.5 incorporating gas-to-particle ratios. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2005, 39, 3245-3254. (55) Jamieson, L. E.; Jaworska, A.; Jiang, J.; Baranska, M.; Harrison, D.; Campbell, C. Simultaneous intracellular redox potential and pH measurements in live cells using SERS nanosensors. Analyst. 2015, 140(7), 2330-2335. (56) Wei, H. R.; Vejerano, E. P.; Leng, W. N.; Huang, Q. S.; Willner, M. R.; Marr, L. C.; Vikesland, P. J. Aerosol microdroplets exhibit a stable pH gradient. P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2018, 115(28), 7272-7277.

28


Page 28 of 35

Page 29 of 35


mass concentration(μg/m3)

666 NO3-

120

NH4+

5

(a)

100 4

pH

80 60

3

40 20

2

T(K)

304

300

20

15

/8

/2

/2 /8 15 20

15 20

4

0

6 /8

/1

/1 /8 15 20

20

15

/8

/8

/4 /8 15 20

/3

2

296

/7 15

308

(b)

1

RH(%)

0 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45

20

667

SO42-

668

Figure 1. Time series (daily average) of (a) mass concentrations of the major PM2.5

669

species (NO3-, SO42-, NH4+) (μg/m3) and aerosol water pH; (b) temperature and RH.

670

29



25 4.0

16

3.5

14

pH

18

3.0

12 10 8

2.5 0

2

4

6

8

(b)

HNO3

pH

NO3-

ε (NO3-)

1.0 4.0

20

0.8

15

0.6

3.5

10

0.4

3.0

5

0.2

0

0.0

10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

pH

(a)

ε (NO3-)

SO42pH

20

mass concentration (μg/m3)

mass concentration (μg/m3)

NH4+

Page 30 of 35

2.5 0

2

4

6

8

time

10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

time RH Water

70

(c)

60

RH

50 40 30 20 10 0

671

5

10

15

20

25

time

672

Figure 2. Diurnal patterns of pH, SNA (sulfate, nitrate, ammonium) and HNO3

673

concentrations, ε(NO3-) (NO3-/(HNO3+ NO3-)), water content and RH. ε(NO3-) was

674

calculated using measured HNO3 (μg/m3) and NO3- concentrations (μg/m3). (a) pH,

675

SO42- and NH4+ concentrations (μg/m3); (b) HNO3 and NO3- concentrations (μg/m3),

676

ε(NO3-). Note that SO42-, NO3-, NH4+, NO3-, and HNO3 were all measured

677

concentrations. (c) RH (%) and water content (μg/m3, estimated by ISORROPIA II).

678

30


Page 31 of 35


secondary nitrate contribution(μg/m3)

time 23 ~ 00 23:00-00:00 22 ~ 23 22:00-23:00 21 ~ 22 21:00-22:00 20 ~ 21 20:00-21:00 19 ~ 20 19:00-20:00 18:00-19:00 18 ~ 19 17 ~ 18 17:00-18:00 16:00-17:00 16 ~ 17 15:00-16:00 15 ~ 16 14:00-15:00 14 ~ 15 13:00-14:00 13 ~ 14 12:00-13:00 12 ~ 13 11:00-12:00 11 ~ 12 10:00-11:00 10 ~ 11 9:00-10:00 09 ~ 10 8:00-9:00 08 ~ 09 7:00-8:00 07 ~ 08 6:00-7:00 06 ~ 07 5:00-6:00 05 ~ 06 4:00-5:00 04 ~ 05 3:00-4:00 03 ~ 04 2:00-3:00 02 ~ 03 1:00-2:00 01 ~ 02 00 ~ 01 0:00-1:00

150

A

100

B

50

0

D

C

2

4

6

pH

8

pH-original

679 680

Figure 3. Relationships between aerosol pH and secondary nitrate (SN) contribution.

681

Samples in A-D were collected from different time periods, and were characterized

682

with

683

meteorological conditions are provided in Figure S7.

different

meteorological

conditions.

Detailed

684

31


information

related

to

Secondary nitrate contribution (μg/m3)


(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

pH

pH

685

Page 32 of 35

686

Figure 4. The secondary nitrate contribution (SN) as a function of pH. Circles were

687

color-coded by sources contributions: (a) Secondary sulfate contribution (μg/m3), (b)

688

vehicle contribution (μg/m3), (c) coal combustion (μg/m3), (d) dust contribution

689

(μg/m3).

690

32


Page 33 of 35


1.0 1.0 0.8

0.6

0.6

-

e(NO3 )

-

e(NO3 )

0.8

0.4

y  1

0.2

1 x  1.99 1  exp( ) 0.65

0.4 Ambient atmospheric samples

0.2

Modeled samples calculated by Eq. (4)

0.0 0.0

-2

691

0

2

pH

4

6

8

-2

0

2

pH

4

6

8

692

Figure 5. S curve constructed by fitting ε(NO3-) as a function of pH using the

693

Boltzmann equation for summer samples (R2=0.70). Black points are actual

694

atmospheric samples with higher SS contribution (higher than 10 μg m-3); red points

695

are calculated by the Boltzmann equation. ε(NO3-) was calculated using measured

696

NO3- concentration in particle phase and measured HNO3 (g) concentration in gas

697

phase.

698

33



(a)

Page 34 of 35

(c)

ε(NO3-)

(b)

pH

pH

pH (e)

(f)

ε(NO3-)

(d)

699

pH

pH

pH

700

Figure 6. ε(NO3-) as a function of pH under different conditions (a) RH (%); (b)

701

Temperature (T, oC); (c) Water content (μg/m3); (d) Dust contribution (μg/m3); (e)

702

Coal contribution (μg/m3); and (f) Vehicle contribution (μg/m3). ε(NO3-) was

703

calculated using measured NO3- concentration in particle phase and measured HNO3

704

(g) concentration in gas phase.

705

34


Page 35 of 35


0.9

 (NO3-)

0.8

1.0

Spring

Winter

0.9

Sample with SS 3 higher than 25 g/m

Sample with SS 3 higher than 25 g/m

0.8

 (NO3-)

1.0

0.7 0.6

1 x  2.8 ) 0.71

y  1

1  exp(

0.5

0.6 0.5 0.4

R2=0.67

0.4

0.7

0.3 0.2

0.3

0.1

0.2

0.0

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0

5.5

0

706

2

4

6

8

pH

pH

707

Figure 7. ε(NO3-) vs. pH for spring and winter samples when SS was greater than 25

708

μg m-3

709

35


High-Resolution Data Sets Unravel the Effects of Sources and

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