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Lead relative bioavailability in lip products and their potential health risk to women Di Zhao, Jie Li, Chao Li, Albert L. Juhasz, Kirk G. Scheckel, Jun Luo, Hong-bo Li, and Lena Q. Ma Environ. Sci. Technol., Just Accepted Manuscript • DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b01425 • Publication Date (Web): 17 May 2016 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on May 17, 2016
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Environmental Science & Technology
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Lead relative bioavailability in lip products and their potential health risk
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to women
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Di Zhao,† Jie Li,† Chao Li,† Albert L. Juhasz,‡ Kirk G. Scheckel,§ Jun Luo,† Hong-Bo Li,*,†
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and Lena Q. Ma*,†,ǁ
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†
State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment,
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Nanjing University, Nanjing 210046, People’s Republic of China
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‡
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§
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Land Remediation and Pollution Control Division, Cincinnati, Ohio 45224-1701, United
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States
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ǁ
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States
Future Industries Institute, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, SA 5095, Australia U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Risk Management Research Laboratory,
Soil and Water Science Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, United
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*
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School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China; Tel./fax: +86 025
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8968 0637, E-mails:
[email protected],
[email protected] Corresponding author, State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse,
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TABLE OF CONTENT
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ABSTRACT: Recent studies have investigated lead (Pb) concentrations in lip products
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although little is known about its oral bioavailability. In this study, 75 lipsticks and 18 lip
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glosses were assessed for Pb concentration, while 15 samples were assessed for Pb relative
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bioavailability (RBA, relative to Pb acetate absorption) using a mouse-femur assay. Lead
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concentrations were 0.2–10,185 mg kg–1, with 21 samples exceeding the Chinese limit of 40
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mg kg–1 Pb. Samples with orange and pink colors and/or low cost contained higher Pb
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concentrations. For samples with Pb >7,500 mg kg-1, Pb was presented due to addition of
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lead chromate (PbCrO4) as a colorant, which was confirmed by X-ray absorption near-edge
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structure analysis. Lead-RBA in 15 samples (87–10,185 mg kg–1) was 23–95%, being
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significantly higher in moderate Pb (56–95%; 87–300 mg kg–1) than high Pb samples
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(23–48%; >300 mg kg–1). Calculation of Pb intake based on Pb-RBA showed that lip product
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ingestion contributed 5.4–68% of the aggregate Pb exposure for women depending on Pb
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concentration. The high Pb concentration in some lip products together with their moderate
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Pb-RBA suggests that lip product ingestion is a potential health concern to women.
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INTRODUCTION Lead (Pb) exposure is a common environmental hazard to humans and is of great
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concern worldwide. Exposure to Pb causes loss of appetite, weakness, anemia, and
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sometimes leads to permanent brain damage or even death.1, 2 Pregnant women and young
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children are particularly vulnerable to Pb exposure. It has been demonstrated that women’s
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blood Pb levels (BLLs) rise during pregnancy and lactation due to increased bone turnover,
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which releases stored skeletal Pb.3 Gulson et al.4 reported a 20% increase in BLLs during
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pregnancy in women with BLLs at 3 µg dL–1. In addition to being remobilized during
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pregnancy, maternal skeletal Pb may be transported across the placenta and enter fetal
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circulation.5 Increased fetal Pb exposure has been linked with elevated incidences of low
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birth weight, miscarriages, and even fetal death.6, 7 The risks of maternal Pb exposure to fetal
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health warrants study of Pb exposure for women of childbearing age.
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Lead exposure is complicated as it occurs from both dietary and non-dietary pathways.8
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Food is the primary ingestion source of Pb exposure for the general population.9 However,
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exposure from non-dietary sources such as incidental ingestion of Pb-containing products
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may constitute a significant source. An important non-dietary Pb exposure pathway for
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women is mouthing or ingestion of lip products such as lipsticks and lip glosses.10, 11 Since
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different pigments have been used to produce specific colors in paints, it is likely that Pb may
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be added to lip products.12 Although a small amount of lip product is applied each time (~10
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mg), the number of daily applications may vary depending on the type of lip product and the
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habit of users. According to Loretz et al.13, the average number of applications among 311
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women from the USA who regularly use lipsticks was 2.4, however, this may vary
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significantly (up to 20) for individual circumstances. It has been estimated that a woman may
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ingest ~1.8 kg of lipstick inadvertently over a lifetime,14 which represents a significant
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exposure pathway depending on Pb concentration in lip products as well as oral Pb
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bioavailability (e.g., Pb fraction absorbed across gastrointestinal barrier following ingestion).
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In recent years, Pb contamination in lip products has gained increasing attention. In
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2007, Campaign for Safe Cosmetics measured Pb concentrations in 33 brands of lipsticks 4
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manufactured in the USA15, finding that Pb was detected in 61% of products with the highest
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concentration of 0.7 mg kg–1. Based on microwave-assisted digestion, Hepp et al.16 reported
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Pb concentrations of 0.1–3.1 mg kg–1 in 20 lipsticks from the USA. A subsequent extensive
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survey of 400 lipsticks from the USA market by Hepp et al.17 reported the highest Pb
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concentration of 7.2 mg kg–1, averaging 1.1 mg kg–1. These reported values are below the
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Food and Drug Administration (FDA) limit of 20 mg Pb kg–1 in cosmetics.18 Similar studies
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found low Pb concentrations in lip products from California, USA (n=32; 40 mg kg–1
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compared to 10 out of 18 (56%) lip gloss samples (Figure 2A). Based on color, orange and
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pink products contained higher Pb concentrations than brown, red, and purple products
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(Figure 2B). Five out of 10 orange products (50%) contained >1000 mg kg–1 while 13 out of
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37 pink products (35%) contained Pb >40 mg kg–1. On the other hand, only 1 out of 10 brown
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(10%) and 2 out of 26 red products (8%) had Pb >40 mg kg–1, while Pb concentrations in 6
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purple products were below the FDA limit of 20 mg kg–1 (Figure 2B). In addition to lip
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product type and color, Pb concentration in lip products tended to decrease with increasing
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price (Figure 2C). All lip products with >40 mg Pb kg–1 were 5 USD were below 20 mg Pb kg–1.
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Previous studies have assessed Pb concentrations in lip products from European and US,
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showing significantly lower Pb concentrations than this study. Piccinini et al.29 reported Pb
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concentrations of 1800 mg kg–1 may lead to a contribution of >30% to aggregate Pb
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exposure, while ingestion of samples with Pb
