Low-Energy Nuclear Reactions Sourcebook - American Chemical

Chapter 5

How to Explain Cold Fusion? Edmund Storms

Downloaded by COLUMBIA UNIV on July 1, 2012 | http://pubs.acs.org Publication Date: August 1, 2008 | doi: 10.1021/bk-2008-0998.ch005

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Cold fusion has been a challenge to explain. Hundreds of attempts have been made, most of which are inconsistent with either observation or well-established conventional theories. This paper evaluates some of the attempts and suggests approaches and observations that need to be considered.

Introduction The phenomenon conventionally called "cold fusion" (1-3) and now more accurately termed "low energy nuclear reaction" (LENR) has been generally rejected because it is difficult to replicate and to explain. The problem of replication has been examined previously in detail (4). This examination concluded that the nuclear effects have been duplicated many times when the correct conditions within the so-called nuclear-active-environment (ΝΑΕ) were created. These special conditions are only now, 18 years after the original discovery by Profs. Fleischmann and Pons (5-/2), well enough understood to make frequent replication possible. Nevertheless, considerable skill is still required. Even though evidence for nuclear reactions has been obtained in many experiments using a variety of methods, the magnitude of the nuclear reactions has a very wide range, being between the detection limit near 1 event/sec to over 10 events/sec. Reactions near the low end of the range can be explained by making minor modifications to conventional theory. On the other hand, reaction rates near the high end defy conventional explanation. This discussion concerns attempts to explain the high end of the range. Unlike heat energy, detection of radiation is generally unambiguous and clearly indicative of a nuclear process. Only the source is unknown. People should take notice when unexpected nuclear activity is produced by "normal" chemical reactions, as has been reported. Even if no excess energy is detected at the same time, these observations demand an explanation. Naturally, unexpected 14

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86 energy will be found when the nuclear rate becomes large enough, as has happened on many occasions. The nuclear reactions have been initiated under a variety of conditions using several methods. If a model appropriate to only one of these conditions is proposed, we are then forced to believe that different unique mechanisms operate to produce similar results when the other conditions are present. In other words, we must accept many "miracles" to explain all of the observations. Just how many mechanisms are operating in the LENR process is an important question. The correct theory is the one that explains the effects regardless which method is used. This discussion focuses on proposed explanations without addressing the mathematical arguments. Mathematical logic is only as good as the assumptions on which it is based. If the assumptions are wrong or if the mathematical logic leads to a conclusion at odds with observation, the mathematical equations are not relevant, no matter how correct, complex, or clever they might be. Consequently, this paper will focus on the assumptions needed to explain the novel observations. Evaluation of proposed models isfrequentlymade difficult when authors build one assumption upon another, any one of which could invalidate the effort. As a result, hundreds of theoretical variations have been suggested containing a variety of assumptions. Hopefully, this general discussion will help guide thinking away from some of the less productive ideas without an evaluation of each theory being necessary. LENR describes nuclear processes that operate in a special solid under relatively low-energy conditions. These reactions include fusion-like reactions involving deuterium that result mostly in He production. Occasionally, tritium, transmutation products, and elements that appear to result from fission of elements in the solid are found even when light hydrogen is used instead of deuterium. Energetic radiation consisting of alpha, beta, gamma, and/or X-ray is produced on occasion. Neutron production is observed infrequently and at very low levels. On occasion some of the nuclear reactions occur at rates sufficient to make measurable heat. The nuclear products and types of energetic radiation reported depend on the conditions and, as expected, on the detection methods used by the experimenter. As the detection methods improve, an increasing amount of anomalous nuclear behavior is being seen. Details about the observations can be found in a recent book (4). These reactions are very sensitive to the solid environment in which they occur, which makes duplication of the critical conditions very difficult. As a result, replication is achieved only after many attempts. The effects do not occur in "normal" material. All theories need to take this important fact into account by identifying the unique and rarely created conditions, i.e., the ΝΑΕ. In addition, applied voltage and electric current are not required to make the nuclear process occur and should not be part of the proposed mechanism. In other words, the proposed mechanism can occur in difficult-to-create structures containing rare conditions without external stimulation. Nevertheless, the rate of reaction, once the unique conditions are created, is increased by applied energy 4

In Low-Energy Nuclear Reactions Sourcebook; Marwan, J., et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2008.


87 such as provided by lasers (13-15), increased temperature (9, 16, 17), or ion bombardment (18-22). No matter how the proposed process is structured, the Coulomb barrier must be addressed. Conventional thinking recognizes its penetration by neutrons, its neutralization by electrons (screening), or penetration using the brute force of energetic charged particles (hot fusion). Once sufficient energy has been applied, resonance or tunneling processes can enhance the effect. Nevertheless, these processes require the localization of considerable energy before they can operate. If the neutrons are not initially present in the environment, they must be created. This requires that 0.78 MeV be added to an electron to permit it to react with a proton. If electrons are accumulated and forced to concentrate near the nucleus, in order to produce sufficient screening, their energy must be increased. This energy has to come from the surrounding atoms. How can energy required to form a neutron or cause sufficient screening be localized? Energy of this magnitude simply does not concentrate in single atoms or electrons and would be a violation of the Second Law of Thermodynamics if it did occur. Even quantum mechanics, which is invoked by several models, requires energy to surmount the barrier between atoms. Therefore, the first test of a proposed mechanism asks the question, "Is a plausible source of energy available?" Of course, if energy sufficient to initiate a nuclear reaction could be spontaneously concentrated in a few atoms or electrons, chemistry as we know it could not exist. A sudden and random concentration of energy would initiate chemical reactions, with easily observed consequences, long before sufficient energy had been accumulated to cause a nuclear reaction. As a result, such models have to make an unstated and unsupported assumption, i.e., that the energy used to overcome the Coulomb barrier or to make a neutron does not interact with the chemical environment even though this is the source of the energy. This discussion focuses on recent suggested models because early attempts were severely handicapped by lack of reliable observation on which to base a theory. Only a few of the suggested models are cited here, so as to provide examples without belaboring the point. By now, sufficient information is available to eliminate many imagined mechanisms.

How to Test a Theory A model is useless unless it can be tested. Normally, proposed models are tested by comparing the logical consequence of their action to what has been observed. In addition, a theory must also be consistent with what is not observed, while remaining consistent with well-established and accepted behavior, in this case nuclear behavior. For example, if neutrons are proposed to be involved in the process, the normally observed decay energy and half-life of neutron decay should be detected. In addition, when the neutrons react with other nuclei, gamma emission and radioactive isotopes will be produced. Other energetic particles can also produce secondary nuclear reactions and emissions under


88 certain conditions. For example, beta emission will result in energetic X-rays (Bremsstrahlung), and energetic alpha emission can produce neutrons. These secondary products must be detected or their absence explained if the proposed primary process is to be accepted.


Neutron Emission Initially, the claims of Fleischmann and Pons were explained as being caused by a "normal" fusion reaction, similar to the one known to occur at high energy. This reaction generates neutrons and tritium as the most easily detected products. The presence of no more than a few neutrons and hardly any tritium led to a search for helium as the main nuclear product, as will be discussed in the next section. In spite of very few neutrons being detected, a model based on the involvement of neutrons as a cause rather than a result is attractive because the absence of a charge on the neutron eliminates the need to overcome the Coulomb barrier when fusion or transmutation occurs. However, a source of neutrons has to be available, which several people have attempted to identify. Kozima (23, 24) proposes that neutrons occupy all materials in a stable assembly called the Trapped Neutron Catalyzed Fusion model. The cold fusion environment can break up these assemblies, allowing the free neutrons to initiate nuclear reactions. Fisher (25, 26) proposes that extra neutrons are lightly stuck to normal nuclei. These polyneutrons are released under certain conditions and enter into nuclear reactions. If extra neutrons are present, as these two models propose, the measured density of material should reflect the extra mass, which has not been observed. However, Oriani (27) found what appears to be extraheavy C 0 in a mass spectrum after a cold fusion experiment. Once the proposed stabilizing condition has been destroyed, evidence of neutron emission and decay should be detected. For example, vaporization of the stabilizing structure in the case of neutron clusters, or bombardment of a nuclei with energetic ions in the case of polyneutrons, should cause neutron release and detection. These expectations have not been satisfied. Some researchers (28-35) have proposed that isolated protons or deuterons can take up normal electrons to create neutrons or dineutrons, respectively. Because this is an endothermic process, it is not expected to occur spontaneously. No experimental evidence has been provided to show that spontaneous formation of neutrons from protons and electrons actually occurs in nature under ambient conditions. However, this conversion can take place within a nucleus by a natural process called k-capture. K-capture occasionally occurs when an unstable nucleus can gain more energy by converting a proton into a neutron than it expends by making this conversion. In the process, the electron is sucked into the nucleus from the k-shell of the surrounding electrons. Zhang and Zhang (36) examine the half-life of isotopes that experience k-capture and relate this to the number of neutrons present in the nucleus. Based on this analysis, they estimate the half-life for deuteron k-capture to be 10 years. This rate is too 2

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small to have any importance to the LENR process even if the process actually occurs in nature. In addition, the naturally occurring, stable elements, as are present in a cold fusion cell, are not known to experience this process. Even if the process should occur, characteristic X-rays are produced and would reveal which element is involved in the conversion. At reaction rates above the middle of the observed range, these X-rays should be easy to detect and dangerous at higher rates. X-rays have been detected, but they have not been shown to result from k-capture. A mechanism has been suggested recently by Widom and Larsen (37-40) based on a series of especially extraordinary assumptions, as follows: 1. Energy provided by the voltage gradient on an electrolyzing surface can add incrementally to an electron, causing its mass to increase. This implies the existence of energy levels within the electron able to hold added energy long enough for the total to be increased to 0.78 MeV mass equivalent by incremental addition. This idea, by itself, is extraordinary and inconsistent with accepted understanding of the electron. 2. Once sufficient energy has accumulated, the massive electron will combine with a proton to create a neutron having very little thermal energy. This implies that the massive electron reacts only with a proton rather than with the more abundant metal atoms making up the sample and does not shed energy by detectable X-ray emission before it can be absorbed. 3. This "cold" neutron will add to the nucleus of palladium and/or nickel to change their isotopic composition. This implies that the combination of half-lives created by beta emission of these created isotopes will quickly result in the observed stable products without this beta emission being detected. 4. The atomic number distribution of transmutation products created by this process matches the one reported by Miley (41) after he electrolyzed Pd+Ni as the cathode and Li S0 +H 0 as the electrolyte. This implies that the periodic function calculated by the authors actually has a relationship to the periodic behavior observed by Miley in spite of the match being rather poor. In addition, residual beta decay has not been detected. 5. Gamma radiation produced by the neutron reaction is absorbed by the super-heavy electrons. This implies that the gamma radiation can add to the mass and/or to the velocity of the super-heavy electron without producing additional radiation. In addition, to be consistent with observation, total absorption of gamma radiation must continue even after the cell is turned off. If this assumption were correct, super-heavy electrons would provide the ideal protection from gamma radiation. 2

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These assumptions are not consistent with the general behavior of the LENR phenomenon nor with experience obtained from studies of electron behavior. Indeed, these assumptions, if correct, would have extraordinary importance independent of cold fusion.



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Neutron production has been observed when energy much greater than ambient but less than 0.78 MeV is present (42-45), suggesting either that energy can be added incrementally or that neutron behavior can occur without complete formation of a neutron. This and other observations cause several authors (4649) to conclude that a virtual neutron could form for a brief time if an electron could shield a proton long enough for it to overcome the Coulomb barrier without actually forming a neutron. This shielding mechanism is also proposed to take place when hydrinos form by the process suggested by Mills (50, 51). If the shielding electron remains outside of the resulting nucleus after the nuclear interaction, this process would be equivalent to a proton or deuteron entering the target nucleus rather than a neutron or dineutron. The Mills variation on this mechanism has several attractive features. Formation of the "virtual" neutron, i.e., hydrino or deutrino, is an exothermic process, thereby eliminating the need to concentrate energy at a few particles; the hydrino or deutrino can form clusters, as have been found to be involved in the transmutation process (52, 53); and transmutation can take place without delayed beta emission, as has been generally observed. Prompt emission of the Mills electrons might explain how the energy leaves the nuclear reaction site without being detected by present efforts. This process would also explain the apparent lack of the required second reaction product when transmutation occurs (52, 54, 55). Regardless of the manner by which a neutron, either virtual or real, is made, the unique conditions that cause the neutron to form must be identified. Only Mills (57, 56) has clearly identified this unique condition. In this case, a special catalyst is required to reduce the electron to a level near the nucleus. If this claim were correct, past reproducibility would be related in part to the chance presence or absence of this catalyst.

Alpha Emission Generation of energy has been clearly correlated with helium production (57-63), with 25±5 MeV/helium being the weighted average of the various measurements (4). This suggests alpha particles are emitted with considerable energy. In the absence of detected gamma emission, this energy must be shared between at least two particles. The more particles involved in this process, the less energy each has to carry. Chubb and Chubb (64-67) propose that this energy is coupled directly to the surrounding atoms within the lattice structure by a process that involves particle-wave conversion. By immediately sharing the energy with many atoms, emission of detectable energetic emission is avoided. Hagelstein (68, 69) also proposes that energy is coupled to the lattice, but in this case by phonons. Except for the Môssbauer process, such direct coupling of nuclear energy has not been observed before. Takahashi (70) proposes that several deuterons condense into a cluster such that two alphas can form simultaneously, thereby sharing the energy and momentum. Formation of such a cluster by the proposed method requires localized energy, hence is unlikely to


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occur spontaneously at the required rate. Each of these models is addressing one narrow aspect of the phenomenon by making several unsupported assumptions. Because these particles have a very limited range even in air, their detection has been difficult. Nevertheless, efforts need to be made to demonstrate experimentally whether energetic particles are emitted or not. Arguments based on mathematical models are not sufficient. Toward this end, a number of efforts have succeeded in detecting energetic particle emission, including alpha (71-76). These observations raise the following questions: 1. Does the detected alpha emission originate from the heat-helium producing reaction? 2. Does the detected alpha emission instead originate from a low-rate reaction having no relationship to the heat-helium reaction? If the answer to Question #1 is yes, direct coupling of energy to the lattice is no longer required, and additional issues are raised. If the answer to Question #2 is yes, we need to discover just how many unexpected nuclear processes are operating in these benign environments. Any model proposing that energetic alpha emission results from a nuclear reaction has to also take into account the expected (a, n) reaction. Energetic alphas will react with various nuclei to produce neutrons. For example, B bombarded by energetic alpha will produce N along with neutrons at energies up to 6 MeV (77). Some boron is expected to deposit on an active cathode during Fleischmann-Pons electrolysis because slow dissolution of the Pyrex container by the LiOD electrolyte will provide boron to the electrolyte. Such energetic neutrons have been reported (78), but at a very low level. Energetic alphas can also produce neutrons by reacting with isotopes of carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen. Beryllium is particularly susceptible to this reaction, but its presence in a Fleischmann-Pons cell is unlikely. In the case of nitrogen, radioactive isotopes of fluorine having detectable half-lives are produced. Consequently, generation of energetic alpha emission at rates able to produce detectable heat is expected to produce detectable neutron emission and perhaps radioactivity. Efforts to correlate heat production with neutron emission or the presence of radioactive products have been largely unsuccessful. This failure suggests the helium is not produced with significant energy. Proposed theories need to address the question, "Why does the nuclear energy resulting from a fusion-like reaction not cause the consequences expected of energetic alpha emission?" n

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Beta Emission

Energetic electrons (beta emission) result from neutron decay and from many radioactive isotopes. Beta emission is stopped easily by the wall of a



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typical cold fusion cell. As a result, it will not be detected outside of the apparatus unless special provisions are made. However, beta emitters have a half-life that frequently is long enough to allow detection by examining an energy-producing cathode after an experiment. On occasion, beta emitters other than tritium are detected after heat production, but this is rare. Even when transmutation products are made, they are very seldom radioactive. Nevertheless, radioactive isotopes having a very short or a very long half-life could be easily overlooked. Most of the detected transmutation products, if they originate from neutron absorption, will produce a decay chain involving beta emitters with a wide range of half-lives. Unless evidence for this decay chain is obtained, the initiating model cannot be accepted. In addition, beta emission will produce X-rays (Bremsstrahlung), which, if it is intense enough, can be detected outside of a typical cell. Failure to detect these X-rays is a reason to reject an intense beta source being present. Too few active cells have been examined by the necessary detectors to know if this X-radiation is always present or not.

Gamma Emission Gamma emission is expected to result when two deuterons fuse to make helium, when a neutron enters a nucleus, and frequently when beta emission occurs. Unlike alpha and beta radiation, each of which has a definite range in materials, a gamma flux degrades by an amount that depends on the halfthickness associated with the energy and the type of material. In other words, if the gamma flux is sufficiently intense, somefractioncan be detected outside of the apparatus. The energy of the photon will not be changed; only the number of photons will be reduced. Consequently, the energy of each remaining photon can be used to identify the source. As a result, gamma and X-ray emission are easy to detect and, when found, demonstrate the occurrence of anomalous nuclear reactions in LENR environments.

Conclusion Nuclear processes always result in a variety of associated behaviors. These associations need to be acknowledged by all theories applied to the LENR process. The usefulness and correctness of a theory can be judged by how well these interacting behaviors are described. Enough information is now available that theory no longer has to make as many unsupported assumptions as were required in the past. In fact, the process is looking increasingly "normal" except for the conditions required for its initiation.


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Low-Energy Nuclear Reactions Sourcebook - American Chemical

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