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Management of Cyst and Root Knot Nematodes: A Chemical Ecology Perspective Baldwyn Torto, Laura Cortada-Gonzalez, Lucy K Murungi, Solveig Haukeland, and Danny Coyne J. Agric. Food Chem., Just Accepted Manuscript • DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.8b01940 • Publication Date (Web): 24 Jul 2018 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on July 24, 2018
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Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
Management of Cyst and Root Knot Nematodes: A Chemical Ecology Perspective
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Baldwyn Torto,*,† Laura Cortada,‡ Lucy K. Murungi, § Solveig Haukeland,†and Danny L. Coyne§
4 5 6 7 8 9
†
International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe), P.O. Box 30772-00100, Nairobi, Kenya
‡
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), P.O. Box 30772-00100, Nairobi, Kenya §
Department of Horticulture, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT), P.O. Box 62000-00200, Nairobi, Kenya
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AUTHOR INFORMATION
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*Corresponding author (Tel: +254-20-2000; Fax: +254-20-2001: E-mail:
[email protected])
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15
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ABSTRACT
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Plant parasitic nematode infection of crops can be highly detrimental to agricultural production.
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Since the discovery that plant roots release chemicals that attract the infective stage of plant
19
parasitic nematodes some 80 years ago, significant progress in identifying the signaling
20
molecules has occurred only relatively recently. Here, we review the literature on chemical
21
ecological studies of two major plant parasitic nematode groups: Root Knot Nematodes in the
22
genus Meloidogyne and cyst nematodes in the genus Globodera because of the negative impact
23
their parasitism has on farming systems in Africa. We then highlight perspectives for future
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directions for their management.
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KEYWORDS: Globodera spp., Meloidogyne spp., semiochemicals, solanoeclepin A, volatile
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organic compounds.
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INTRODUCTION
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Plant parasitic nematodes constitute some of the greatest threats to crop production. The two
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most important groups of plant parasitic nematodes are Root Knot Nematodes (RKNs)
30
(Meloidogyne spp.) and Cyst nematodes (Globodera and Heterodera spp.). Virtually every
31
cultivated crop is prone to RKN attack, with Meloidogyne incognita, being the most important
32
crop pathogen globally.
33
juvenile stages (J1), (J2) the infective stage, (J3), (J4) and adult stages. However, cyst nematodes
34
tend to be much more host specific and require host stimulus for egg hatching. The J2 of RKN
35
and cyst nematodes react to stimuli from suitable host roots to attract and guide them to their
36
food source.
37
Previous work has shown that with increased human mobility, the accidental introduction of
38
alien species to new environments will occur, as witnessed with the recent report of potato cyst
39
nematode (PCN) in Kenya.2 Global warming will also likely facilitate the further distribution of
40
tropical RKN and cyst species to regions where they are currently not present, as shown by the
41
spread of the tropical RKN species M incognita, M. javanica, and M. arenaria, which were
42
observed among the most rapidly spreading pests globally. 3 Given that many of the nematicides
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formerly relied upon to manage plant parasitic nematodes have been withdrawn from the market
44
due to environmental concerns,
45
environmentally sensitive tools to effectively control RKN and cyst nematodes. In this regard,
46
understanding and exploiting knowledge of the chemical ecology of RKN and cyst nematode and
47
their interactions with crops for their management is critical.
1
Cyst nematodes have a similar biology to RKNs with a distinct egg,
4
there is even greater pressure to identify suitable and
48
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ADVANCES IN CHEMICAL ECOLOGY OF ROOT KNOT AND CYST NEMATODES
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Chemical ecology is the study of the role of natural chemical interactions between organisms of
51
the same or different species. The mediating chemicals are commonly referred to as
52
“semiochemicals” (message-bearing chemicals). Semiochemicals are low to medium molecular
53
weight volatile and non-volatile organic compounds synthesized from various pathways and can
54
be exploited for the management of pests including plant parasitic nematodes. During the
55
previous half a century or so, we have witnessed the rapid development and sensitivity in
56
chemical instrumentation, resulting in the discovery of a broad range of semiochemicals from a
57
wide range of above- and below-ground (rhizosphere) interactions. Comparatively, most of the
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discoveries on semiochemicals have been made from above- as opposed to below-ground
59
interactions because of the complexity of the interactions in the rhizosphere (Figure 1). To
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improve our knowledge on below-ground interactions, better techniques are needed to collect
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and identify the molecules, especially volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
62
Chemo-ecological studies are typically driven by simple, reliable and reproducible behavioral
63
assays. For plant parasitic nematode-host plant interactions two main types of behavioral assays
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are recognized: stylet thrusting and chemotaxis. In the stylet thrusting assay, measurements are
65
made on the rate at which the nematode thrusts its stylet (microscopic spear-like structure) into a
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chemical stimulus obtained from the host root. Stylet thrusting has been successfully recorded in
67
both water and Pluronic gel formulations (a synthetic block copolymer),
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nematode can move around freely in various liquid media and at the same time thrust its stylet to
69
detect chemical stimuli. More recently, it was shown that electrophysiological recordings of the
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stylet can be made,
71
breakthroughs to identifying semiochemicals associated with insect olfaction are applicable to
6
5
suggesting that the
demonstrating that some of the techniques that have provided
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plant parasitic nematodes. However, current electrophysiological techniques developed for plant
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parasitic nematodes are yet to be optimized to isolate physiologically-active compounds.
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Although stylet thrusting indicates detection of a chemical stimulus, using this technique does
75
not allow for full classification of the chemical stimulus as an attractant (stimulant) or repellent
76
(deterrent).
77
chemical stimuli) assays, allows for a full description of the stimulus as an attractant or repellent.
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Previously chemotaxis assays were screened in 1% agar discs,
79
sand-filled dual choice olfactometer 11-15 have allowed for testing nematode directional responses
80
to intact plant root secretions, extracts and synthetic compounds identified from these root
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secretions.
82
Another reason why studies on below-ground interactions lag above-ground interactions is the
83
complexity involved in collecting and identifying the mediating molecules from the roots in the
84
sand. To collect volatile organic compounds emitted by plant roots, inert polymer adsorbents
85
including solid phase microextraction (SPME) fibers, Super Q, Porapak Q, HayeSepQ, which
86
have been used previously to collect odors for various interactions (e.g. plant-plant, plant-insect,
87
insect-insect, plant-microbe) are used in various sampling techniques. For example, some
88
researchers have used SPME fibers to collect volatiles from excised plant roots crushed at very
89
low temperatures such as in liquid nitrogen.
90
material crushed at even low temperatures can lead to production of artefacts in the volatile
91
emissions associated with mechanical damage. Using such methods would need to be backed by
92
direct sampling of the root emitted volatiles into the sand. Our research shows that pulling air
93
from the sand through SPME fibers enclosed in glass tubes collects predominantly sand-
94
associated volatiles. To overcome the masking of root volatiles with sand-associated volatiles,
7
On the other hand, using chemotaxis (directional responses of nematodes to
11
8-10
but recent successes using
The disadvantage of this method is that tissue
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other researchers have successfully developed and used a direct sampling method for roots in the
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field or for uprooted plants in the laboratory using a probe inserted directly into the sand. Air is
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then pulled through the probe and then an adsorbent attached at the end of the probe. 12,14,15 The
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advantage of this method is that it allows for comparison of laboratory-collected volatiles from
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uprooted plants and field roots to eliminate artefacts associated with uprooted plants. It also
100
allows for continuous sampling of root volatiles.
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Analysis of root secretions mainly consists of two approaches depending upon whether the target
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secretion is VOCs or non-volatiles. The most common method used for the analysis of VOCs is
103
coupled gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The second approach is analysis of
104
non-volatile compounds by coupled high performance liquid chromatography-time of flight mass
105
spectrometry (LC-QTOF-MS). In the analysis by GC-MS, some researchers have argued that
106
solvent extracted volatiles from inert adsorbents do not reflect the complete natural volatile
107
profile since low molecular weight compounds (C-2 to C-4 derivatives) such as acetaldehyde,
108
ethyl acetate, propanal and butanal may not be captured in the adsorbed volatiles. An alternative
109
approach suggested is sampling on an adsorbent such as Tenax TA which can be thermally
110
desorbed in the GC-MS system. Although thermal desorption is less complicated, it has the
111
disadvantage of degrading sensitive samples.
112
combined with these analytical methods, have revealed that parasitic nematode chemical ecology
113
is dependent on several factors including nematode species, root part (zone of elongation of
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growing roots), plant species, pH, concentration of chemical in the root exudate and interactions
115
with other rhizosphere organisms especially microbes. In the following sections, we will provide
116
highlights on chemical ecological studies of two of the most important plant parasitic nematode
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groups; RKN in the genus Meloidogyne and cyst nematodes in the genus Globodera because of
16
However, using specific behavioral assays
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the detrimental impact of their parasitism on agricultural productivity, and then highlight
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perspectives for future directions.
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Chemical ecology of Meloidogyne spp.-Host Plant Interactions
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In nematode-plant interactions, the discovery that chemicals associated with plant roots attracted
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infective stage juveniles of parasitic nematodes was first made in 1939.
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experiments carried out after this discovery occurred almost two decades later, focusing on
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excised plant roots and interactions with infective juvenile stages of various parasitic nematode
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species from the genus Meloidogyne.
126
understanding of nematode-plant interactions, they failed to identify the signaling molecules
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mediating interactions. Since then, several signaling molecules have been identified to show that
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Meloidogyne-host plant interactions are complex, involving diverse molecules derived from
129
different chemical classes. Some of these chemicals may serve as long- or short-range signaling
130
molecules depending upon their volatility, interaction with sand particles (adsorption and
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desorption) polarity and solubility in water. The simplest chemical identified is carbon dioxide,
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considered a long-range attractant,18 perhaps because previous work demonstrated that parasitic
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nematodes congregated around anaerobic surfaces associated with release of carbon dioxide.
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However, carbon dioxide is considered a non-specific signal because of the wide range of
135
sources (decomposing plant, metabolism of root mutualistic microbes etc.) that emit it in the
136
rhizosphere and which when in solution can lead to acidic gradients that attract or repel parasitic
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nematodes.
138
attraction of M. hapla to acidic gradients ranging between pH of 4.5 and 5.4 formed by acetic
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acids, 5 suggesting that knowledge of the salinity of the medium in which the root is developing
140
is critical to an understanding of Meloidogyne responses to root secretions. Evidently, the
5
18,19
17
Subsequent
Although these follow up studies improved our
Assays carried out in a 23% aqueous solution of Pluronic gel confirmed the
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complexity of the interactions with host plant roots found by other researchers and in our group,
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is because of the responsiveness shown by different Meloidogyne species to a wide range of
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volatile and non-volatile organic compounds, including phytohormones, terpenoids, esters and
144
phenols.
145
was shown to modulate the attractiveness of host roots to M. hapla.
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the ethylene-signaling pathway directly affecting root length did not appear to be responsible for
147
modulating root attractiveness; instead other unidentified components of downstream signaling
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modulated the responses of M. hapla.
149
Recently, it has been shown that small lipophilic molecules extracted in tomato (Solanum
150
lycopersicum) and rice (Oryza sativa) root exudates had a nematotoxic or nematostatic effect on
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M. incognita and M. graminicola.
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downstream signaling components is yet to be established. More recent studies have shown that
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M. incognita is attracted to volatile organic compounds released by roots of different cultivars of
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the solanaceous plant pepper (Capsicum annum) (Table 1), such as methyl salicylate, α-pinene,
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limonene, and tridecane,
156
salicylate was the most potent attractant in the blend of compounds identified. This study also
157
showed that the host finding process in M. incognita can be disrupted by thymol, released in the
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VOCs of the root of another cultivar of pepper.
159
process of developing novel eco-friendly strategies for control of M. incognita via plant
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breeding, whereby specific molecular pathways for suppressing root production of methyl
161
salicylate or incorporating genes responsible for thymol production in the roots of pepper can be
162
explored to protect pepper from RKN infection. Similar studies in our laboratory have
15
To illustrate this complexity, the signaling pathway of the phytohormone ethylene
15
21
20
However, components of
Whether these small lipophilic molecules constitute
with subtractive assays demonstrating that the aromatic ester methyl
15
These findings mark a significant step in the
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demonstrated the importance of plant species in altering RKN responses to root VOCs using
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tomato and spinach, (Spinacea oleracea; Amaranthaceae) (Table 1). 22
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A recent study showed that tomato root-secreted non-volatiles including phenol 2, 6-di-tert-
166
butyl-p-cresol, and esters L-ascorbyl 2, 6-dipalmitate, dibutyl phthalate and dimethyl phthalate
167
influenced the behavior of J2s differentially. 23 Among these compounds, only dibutyl phthalate
168
repelled J2s. These compounds may be artefacts because they are typical contaminants detected
169
in samples analyzed by GC-MS.
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Chemical Ecology of Cyst Nematode- Host Plant Interactions
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Potato cyst nematodes (PCN), comprising two species of Globodera (G. pallida and G.
172
rostochiensis) represent quarantine pests in over 100 countries 24 and are considered the primary
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potato pests globally. Cysts of PCN may contain ~500-700 eggs and can persist in the soil for
174
more than 20 years, withstanding extreme temperatures (-15 ˚C) and/or prolonged desiccation. 25
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The reactivation of eggs within the cysts is triggered by the presence of a suitable host crop,
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primarily potato (Solanum tuberosum) but also to a lesser extent other Solanaceae species such
177
as tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), eggplant (Solanum melongena), or Capsicum spp.
178
Root secretions from several plant species have been identified as the triggering factors for the
179
hatching of diverse cyst nematode species. Some of these root effectors are responsible for
180
prompting changes in the permeability of the PCN three-layer egg's membrane. For instance,
181
calcium ions which diffuse into the soil activate osmotic changes in the membrane to release
182
trehalose. This allows water to be absorbed through the egg's membrane to hydrate it, which in
183
turn ceases the diapause in the cyst, leading to hatching and emergence of metabolically active
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J2s. The J2s then locate their hosts by detection of root secretions including volatile organic 9 ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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compounds. 26 Interestingly, several root secreted metabolites have been identified as stimulating
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PCN hatching, but solanoeclepin A, a tetranortriterpene derived from gonanane 27 present in the
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root exudates of potato and tomato roots is the most studied. 28 It shows nanomolar activity as a
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PCN-hatching factor, indicating the sensitivity of the hatching process in response to the
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appropriate chemical stimulus. Related studies have also identified hatching factors including
190
glycinoeclepin A in soybean (Glycine max) and kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), as well as
191
glycinoeclepin B and C in the latter species, for the soybean cyst nematode Heterodera glycines.
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29
193
common biosynthetic origin
194
oxygenated, and will bind to water molecules, low concentrations of them can be absorbed
195
through the egg's membrane to trigger hatching. Because plant roots also release volatile organic
196
compounds, their role in PCN J2 host location requires investigation.
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Additional molecules that play an important role in the plant-nematode recognition signaling are
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the hatching factor stimulants: their presence in the soil enhances and/or inhibits hatching
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through chemical interaction with the already existing root secretions available in the soil. The
200
glycoalkaloids α-chaconine and α-solanine are both able to stimulate J2 hatching of Globodera
201
spp. 31 ;the variable hatching stimulus of these two molecules 32 is linked to their concentration in
202
the rhizosphere, which seems to vary with the age of the plant; for instance, α-solanine is present
203
at higher concentrations in younger plants. Similarly, these two glycoalkaloids are also highly
204
oxygenated, thereby potentially using a similar mechanism to that of solanoeclepin A,
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glycinoeclepin A, glycinoeclepin B and C to trigger hatching in PCNs. Hatching of cyst
206
nematodes is triggered by highly specific root exudate cues, but it is additionally controlled by
207
hatching inhibitors including proteases and protease inhibitors that have been identified from the
These three compounds stimulating hatching in cyst nematodes are triterpenoids sharing a 30
like solanoeclepin A. Structurally, because they are highly
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cyst wall. 33 These cyst inner inhibitors are influenced by the rhizosphere composition and appear
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in higher concentrations during unfavorable periods for cysts to be persistent in the soil until a
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suitable host crop is planted. 33,34 Such hatching inhibitors have been found in both the plant and
211
cyst cuticles,
212
mechanism that prevents cysts from hatching under suboptimal conditions. This points towards a
213
strong adaptation by cyst nematodes to their hosts through the chemical-dialogue established at
214
the rhizosphere level. 35
215
While disruption of the diapause stage of PCN is highly dependent on the specific presence of
216
host root secretions in the rhizosphere, some cyst nematode species, such as the soybean cyst
217
nematode hatch more spontaneously. Therefore, use of its natural hatching effectors has been
218
highlighted as a sustainable method to manage PCN in the absence of a suitable host. Over the
219
years, these hatching factors (i.e. asparagusic acid) have been proposed to be developed into
220
nematicides. 33,36 However, the complexity in the structures of these molecules have precluded
221
their large-scale synthetic production. Instead, less complex oxygenated synthetic hatching
222
effectors have been developed, such as metavanadate and picrolonic acid, with the latter being
223
effective only with G. rostochiensis.
224
identified hatching factors, a strategy currently being explored to manage PCN is the disruption
225
of the chemical signaling between the potato root secretions and the J2s.
226
Recently, the use of dead-end trap crops to suppress PCN in soil has been attempted with varying
227
degrees of success using Solanaceae plants, for example the sticky nightshade (Solanum
228
sysimbriifolium).
229
but are then unable to develop on the resistant plant thus acting as a dead-end trap crop. In a
230
previous study,
7
and therefore these have been identified as an additional nematode-resistance
37
38
31
In the absence of a commercial product derived from the
Using trap crops, PCN are stimulated to hatch by nightshade root exudates
90 accessions of Solanaceae (non-tuber bearing) were screened for their 11 ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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hatching stimulatory effect on PCN as well as for resistance. All these Solanum species induced
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hatching of PCN and was highest for the S. nigrum complex. The hatching stimulatory effects of
233
these solanaceous plants may be associated with similar class of compounds previously
234
identified in the root exudates of tomato and potato. Sticky nightshade and two cultivars of S.
235
nigrum induced high levels of hatching as well as providing resistance against PCN, and which
236
were considered good candidates as trap crops. Interestingly, other researchers,
237
demonstrated the effect and potential of some non-Solanaceae crops, such as lupine (Lupinus
238
mutabilis (Fabaceae)) and Oxalis tuberosa (Oxalidaceae) as trap crops for PCN. As a result,
239
lupine is used as a green manure crop by Bolivian potato farmers to mitigate against PCN attack.
240
The underlying mechanisms leading to lupine to serve as a trap crop needs investigating.
241
In Kenya, where PCN is a recent introduction, 2 on-going studies in our laboratory indicate that
242
at least two species of the African indigenous vegetables (AIVs), African nightshade (Solanum
243
scabrum and S. vilosum) act as potential trap crops. Our field studies show that after three
244
seasons of planting these nightshade species the PCN population density declined by 80%. Given
245
these findings, elucidation of the chemicals involved and degree of hatching they cause (vital for
246
success as a dead-end trap crop), and level of resistance are necessary. Furthermore, the
247
sequence of cropping, in terms of re-stimulation for PCN hatching, should also be studied. Thus,
248
the importance of these nightshade species as nutritious food crops and for income (unlike S.
249
sisymbriifolium, which is a weed) is an added value within such a cropping system for African
250
smallholder farmers. Screening of other AIVs as trap crops for PCN management therefore
251
provides potential value and may result in identifying better trap crops, as well as new hatching
252
factors. Regarding the effects of potential non-solanaceous crops as trap crops or inhibitors of
253
PCN hatching, much work remains on the chemical ecology and interactions with PCN.
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have
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The management of plant parasitic nematodes in bio-fumigated and amended soils is attributed
255
to a combination of different mechanisms, such as: i) the enhancement of the production of
256
nematicide chemical molecules at the rhizosphere level; ii) the increase/introduction of
257
antagonist microorganisms in the soil; and/or iii) boosting of plant defense mechanisms. 40 Neem
258
(Azadirachta indica) and several species from the Asteraceae family (Tagetes spp., Artemisia
259
dracunculus, Chrysanthemum spp. Calendula spp. and Crotolaria spp.) have been successfully
260
used to amend soils and decrease nematode populations due to their ability to release pre-existing
261
nematicidal phytochemicals, mainly limonoids, sesquiterpene lactones and polythienyls
262
(especially α-terthienyl) into the rhizosphere; a few of these species have been used
263
commercially, although a high variability on the efficacy of the biofumigation process has been
264
reported, depending on the plant species used or on the soil type. 40-42 Botanical species of the
265
Brassicaceae family are rich in glucosinolates, which transform into isothiocyanates upon
266
degradation of plant tissues and are also used for their nematicidal effects in biofumigation
267
programs.
268
potential management option for the control of PCN, RKN and other plant parasitic nematodes.
269
42,44
270
juncea), both in liquid and in gas phase, can successfully inhibit G. pallida hatching (50%
271
decline) in vitro, although it was less successful under field conditions.
272
mechanisms linked to PCN hatching inhibition being unclearly elucidated, it has been observed
273
that 2-propenyl isothiocyanate triggers the expression of heat-shock proteins in the free living
274
nematode Caenorhabditis elegans; the overexpression of such proteins has been linked to an
275
acceleration of the metabolic activities of J1 within the egg and the subsequent depletion of their
276
energetic reserves that leads to its death and/or prevents J2s from infecting its hosts. It has been
43
The incorporation of Brassica species as green manures has been reported as a
Studies show that the precursors of 2-propenyl isothiocyanate excreted by mustard (Brassica
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Despite the
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proposed that soil micronutrient composition, specifically sulfur, could also have an impact on
278
the efficiency of the metabolism of the glucosinolate production by Brassica species and should
279
be further investigated. The degradation of soil organic acids into short-chain fatty acids under
280
anoxic conditions has also been reported to have a suppressive effect on PCN. 46,47
281
As shown in Figure 1, plant hormonal signaling pathway can also influence RKN and cyst
282
nematode host finding. For instance, an active ethylene (ET) signaling pathway has been
283
reported to repel M. hapla
284
beet cyst nematode (Heterodera schachtii),
285
ethylene were found to be more susceptible to the cyst nematodes. 49 For G. pallida, both volatile
286
and non-volatile compounds have been reported to play a role in plant-nematode signaling: the
287
water-soluble components combined with volatile cues elicit hatching and localization of the
288
feeding site by J2s, 50 although the identity and proportion in each of these fractions contributing
289
to bioactivity is yet to be determined.
290
Some studies have demonstrated the involvement of plant hormonal signaling in PCN host plant
291
interaction. For example, salicylic acid (SA)-deficient mutants were found to be more susceptible
292
to the beet cyst nematode, H. schachtii, than non-mutants, suggesting that an intact salicylic (SA)
293
pathway is required for the defense mechanisms of sugar beet.
294
reported with tomato for jasmonic acid, which requires an intact signaling pathway to retain the
295
Mi-1 mediated resistance response against RKN. These findings suggest that more studies are
296
needed to elucidate the chemical ecology of the interactions between these plant parasitic
297
nematodes and their host plants.
298
FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
20
and the soybean cyst nematode H. glycines but attracts the sugar 48
while Arabidopsis mutants over-expressing
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Similar findings have been
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What we know from the review of the chemical ecology of the two genera Meloidogyne and
300
Globodera is that most studies have exclusively focused on their interaction with roots of crops,
301
which is a binary system. However, crop roots typically have a close association with mutualistic
302
rhizosphere microorganisms. Therefore, what we have yet to establish is how these mutualistic
303
associations influence the chemical ecology of plant parasitic nematodes and how such
304
knowledge can be exploited for RKN and cyst nematode management. The rhizosphere is
305
characterized by a complexity of interactions (Figure 1); for instance, microbial root mutualists
306
may influence plant fitness by altering the composition and concentration of secondary
307
metabolites and nutrients. Similarly, plant chemistry may also influence microbial root mutualist
308
fitness. For instance, a trap crop or bio-transformed crop may be effective against plant parasitic
309
nematodes due to the secondary metabolites of the plant, or alternatively the composition of
310
microbial root mutualists, or even both. As such, it would serve a useful exercise to identify
311
beneficial microbial root mutualists for a specific crop or cropping system and investigate their
312
influence on the chemical signaling in the rhizosphere, via studies such as microbe-microbe,
313
microbe-plant, plant-plant, and microbe-plant-nematode interactions. Also, the interaction
314
between microbial root mutualists and nematodes may influence, or even determine, the fitness
315
of the nematode to locate host roots. Understanding the chemical communication of such
316
microbe-nematode interactions may be critical to developing effective nematode management
317
methods. Furthermore, studies on the effects that these interactions have on plant parasitic
318
nematode natural enemies in the rhizosphere are also warranted. Understanding these
319
interactions would provide opportunities for developing methods to enhance and exploit the use
320
of natural enemies in nematode control.
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Since genetic pathways may drive these binary and tri-trophic interactions, some researchers
322
have investigated the expression of genes and demonstrated that certain genes are either up- or
323
down-regulated due to nematode infection in certain crops. These studies have also exclusively
324
focused on the binary system: nematode-plant interaction. Therefore, knowledge of the genes
325
that are expressed due to the microbial root mutualist associations and understanding how they
326
influence the chemical ecology of nematode-host interactions is required. Such knowledge can
327
be exploited for use in the biotransformation of crops to mitigate against nematode attack.
328
To conclude, sedentary RKN and cyst nematodes pose a serious threat to crop productivity
329
across the globe, but especially in the tropics and SSA.
330
chemical signaling between nematode pest and crop host roots for host recognition, host finding
331
and location there appears a whole gamut of potential avenues to explore for exploiting this
332
towards nematode pest management in small holder farming systems.
52
333
334
AUTHOR INFORMATION
335
ORCID
336
Baldwyn Torto: 0000-0002-5080-9903
337
Laura Cortada: 0000-0002-5953-3798
338
Lucy K. Murungi: 0000-0002-3917-7474
339
Solveig Haukeland: 0000-0003-0671-5798
340
Danny Coyne: 0000-0002-2030-6328
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Given the apparent importance of
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342
Funding
343
We gratefully acknowledge the financial support for this research by the following organizations
344
and agencies: Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA), UK's
345
Department for International Development (DFID); the Swiss Agency for Development and
346
Cooperation (SDC); the Austrian Development Agency (ADA); USAID; and the Kenyan
347
Government. The views expressed herein do not necessarily reflect the official opinion of the
348
donors.
349
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Table 1. Compounds Identified in the Volatiles Emitted by Host Plant Roots of the Root Knot Nematode Meloidogyne incognita Compound
Source
α-pinene
pepper, tomato, spinach
camphene
tomato
β-pinene
tomato, spinach
δ-3-carene
tomato
6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one
tomato
myrcene
tomato
decane
pepper
limonene
pepper, tomato, spinach
(Z)-β-ocimene
pepper, tomato
p-cymene
pepper
undecane
pepper
camphor
pepper
sabinene
tomato
2-isopropyl-3-methoxypyrazine
tomato, spinach
2-methoxy-3-(1-methylpropyl)-pyrazine
pepper, tomato, spinach
dodecane
pepper
methyl salicylate
pepper, tomato
thymol
pepper
tridecane
pepper, tomato
tetradecane
pepper
geosmin
spinach
α-cedrene
tomato, spinach
β-cedrene
tomato, spinach
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γ-himachalene
pepper
allo-aromadendrene
pepper
α-muurolene
pepper
4,5-di-epi-aristolochene
pepper
γ - gurjunene
pepper
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497
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
FIGURE CAPTIONS
498 499
Figure 1. Physico-chemical, physiological and microbiological factors influencing populations'
500
dynamics of plant parasitic nematodes at the rhizosphere level. Plant roots produce
501
semiochemical molecules (volatile and non-volatile) as defense cues to repel nematodes and
502
minimize root infestation (blue-dotted arrow-shaped icon). Conversely, some of these root
503
allelochemicals are used by plant parasitic nematodes as indicators of the presence of a suitable
504
host, and once these are detected they trigger a cascade of hatching mechanisms in the nematode
505
that end up in the releasing of infective juveniles into the soil to infest the plant root system (red
506
solid arrow-shaped icon); additionally, a few cyst nematodes species (i.e. PCN) can maximize
507
their chances of persisting in the soil until a suitable host is planted by reducing spontaneous
508
hatching through inner inhibiting hatching mechanisms (i.e. proteases and proteases inhibitors)
509
hosted in the cuticle of the cysts (green- dotted arrow-shaped icon). Population dynamics of root-
510
knot nematodes (RKN) and potato cyst nematodes (PCN) are further influenced by the presence
511
of microbiological control agents in the soil that act either as obligate parasites or as antagonist,
512
both with the ability of reducing the incidence of parasitic nematodes in the soil under adequate
513
environmental
conditions.
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Figure 1
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TOC Graphic
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