Letters pubs.acs.org/acschemicalbiology
MAP4K4 Is a Threonine Kinase That Phosphorylates FARP1 Adam G. Schwaid,*,† Chunyan Su,‡ Paula Loos,§ Jiang Wu,∥,# Chong Nguyen,∥ Kathryn L. Stone,⊥ Jean Kanyo,⊥ Kieran F. Geoghegan,∥ Samit K. Bhattacharya,† Robert L. Dow,† Leonard Buckbinder,‡ and Philip A. Carpino† †
Worldwide Medicinal Chemistry, ‡Cardiovascular and Metabolic Diseases Research Unit, §Neuroscience Research Unit, Pfizer Pharmatherapeutics Research and Development, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02143, United States ∥ Structural Biology and Biophysics, Center for Chemistry Innovation and Excellence, Pfizer Pharmatherapeutics Research and Development, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States ⊥ W.M. Keck Foundation Biotechnology Resource Laboratory, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, United States S Supporting Information *
ABSTRACT: Mitogen-activated protein kinase 4 (MAP4K4) regulates the MEK kinase cascade and is implicated in cytoskeletal rearrangement and migration; however, identifying MAP4K4 substrates has remained a challenge. To ascertain MAP4K4-dependent phosphorylation events, we combined phosphoproteomic studies of MAP4K4 inhibition with in vitro assessment of its kinase specificity. We identified 235 phosphosites affected by MAP4K4 inhibition in cells and found that pTP and pSP motifs were predominant among them. In contrast, in vitro assessment of kinase specificity showed that MAP4K4 favors a pTL motif. We showed that MAP4K4 directly phosphorylates and coimmunoprecipitates with FERM, RhoGEF, and pleckstrin domain-containing protein 1 (FARP1). MAP4K4 inhibition in SHSY5Y cells increases neurite outgrowth, a process known to involve FARP1. As FARP1 and MAP4K4 both contribute to cytoskeletal rearrangement, the results suggest that MAP4K4 exerts some of its effects on the cytoskeleton via phosphorylation of FARP1.
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understanding of the substrate preferences of MAP4K4 and its phosphorylation pathway should also advance rationalization of the cellular effects of its pharmacological inhibition. Compound 1, a recently discovered MAP4K4 inhibitor, exhibits selectivity for the Germinal Center Kinase (GCK) family, including MAP4K4, TNIK, GCK, and MINK, as well as PIP4K2C and PIP5K3 (Figure 1A and Supporting Information Scheme S1 and Figures S1 and S2). Availability of this compound allows for detailed phosphoproteomic studies of phosphorylation changes downstream of the GCK family to be performed. In the first phase of the present work, it was used in a phosphoproteomic analysis of the effects of MAP4K4 inhibition. We chose to inhibit MAP4K4 in the immortalized human liver cell line, HepG2. These cells express high levels of MAP4K4 and relatively modest levels of other GCK family kinases.11 Therefore, we reasoned that changes in phosphorylation could predominantly be attributed to inhibition of MAP4K4.11 We treated SILAC-labeled HepG2 cells with compound 1 for a maximum period of 2 h to capture phosphorylation changes occurring prior to confounding transcriptional effects; then, we trypsinized HepG2 lysates,
he serine/threonine protein kinase MAP4K4 has been implicated in diseases such as diabetes and cancer,1,2 but the linkages between its activity and these conditions remain unclear. MAP4K4 regulates fundamental cellular processes such as cell growth, morphology, and rearrangements of the cytoskeleton,3−7 but improved understanding of the molecular bases of these activities requires the identification of its proximal and downstream substrates. Phosphoproteomic studies of the effects of MAP4K4 inhibition have been hampered by the lack of potent and highly selective MAP4K4 inhibitors. Although the kinase has been studied in conditional knockout and siRNA knockdown models, depletion of protein levels can have consequences beyond the suppression of MAP4K4 enzymatic activity.8 Consequently, the substrate specificity of MAP4K4 is poorly defined, and the identities of its downstream substrates are mostly unknown. Exceptions are NHE1, the ERM proteins (ezrin, moesin, and radixin), and Arp2, all of which have been identified as direct substrates.6,7,9,10 Implication of the ERM proteins and Arp2 helped to elucidate the mechanism through which MAP4K4 acts on cytoskeletal rearrangement. In particular, their identification as substrates explained how MAP4K4 affects both lamellipodium formation after EGFR stimulation and actin filament nucleation. Moreover, phosphorylation of these substrates by MAP4K4 shows that it also functions independently of the MEK/JNK pathway.6 Improved © XXXX American Chemical Society
Received: June 7, 2015 Accepted: September 25, 2015
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DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.5b00679 ACS Chem. Biol. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX
Letters
ACS Chemical Biology
Figure 2. In vitro MAP4K4 kinase assays identify the structural bias of MAP4K4 substrates. (A) HepG2 lysates were trypsinized, and cellular phosphopeptides were enriched. Phosphopeptides were then dephosphorylated and treated with either MAP4K4 kinase domain or vehicle. Post kinase reaction, phosphopeptides were enriched again and injected on LC-MS/MS. Phosphopeptides that were observed consistently in the kinase-treated but never in the vehicle-treated sample were determined to be directly phosphorylated by the MAP4K4 kinase domain (n = 3). (B) In vitro MAP4K4 preferred a pTL motif. (C) A heat map of in vitro MAP4K4 substrates shows the amino acid preferences of MAP4K4 at different positions within the substrate. (D) MAP4K4 almost exclusively phosphorylates on threonine residues and prefers bulky liphatic residues C-terminal to the phosphosite.
Figure 1. SILAC phosphoproteomics reveals the phosphorylation pathway of MAP4K4 inhibitor compound 1. (A) Structure of compound 1. (B) Phosphoproteins regulated by MAP4K4 fall into two main categories. (C) Downregulated phosphomotifs observed upon treatment with MAP4K4 inhibitor compound 1. (D) Upregulated phosphomotifs upon compound 1 treatment.
harvested phosphopeptides from the digests, and analyzed the products by LC-MS/MS and database searching (Supporting Information Figure S3). Of 4430 detected phosphopeptides, 235 were differentially regulated upon MAP4K4 inhibition (Supporting Information Tables S1 and S2). To determine whether MAP4K4 inhibition correlated with known phenotypes of MAP4K4 knockdown, we compared up- or downregulated cellular phosphopeptides to gene sets of known biological processes. Collectively, the observed substrates matched to gene sets corresponding to known cellular functions of MAP4K4, such as cytoskeletal remodeling (Figure 1B).3−5,12 We next asked whether any phosphorylation motif predominated within the MAP4K4 pathway and performed an alignment of the inhibitor-sensitive sequences with Maximal Motif Finder for Phosphopeptides.13 The results highlighted several motifs common to up- and downregulated phosphopeptides (Figure 1C,D). Among downregulated phosphopeptides, the pSP and pTP motifs were common. As these motifs are common to numerous kinases, including the MAP kinase family,14 this result made it difficult to assert with high confidence that the majority of phosphorylation changes were immediately proximal to MAP4K4. For this reason, we sought an alternative method of studying the substrate specificity of MAP4K4. To gauge the direct substrate preferences of MAP4K4, we applied the recently developed Kinase-Assay Linked Phosphoproteomic (KALIP) approach that has been used successfully to identify direct substrates of the protein tyrosine kinase Syk (Figure 2A).15 First, cellular phosphopeptides were enriched from a tryptic digest of HepG2 cell lysate. This limited the potential for false positives in KALIP, as true MAP4K4 kinase substrates are likely to be phosphorylated to some extent in
cells where MAP4K4 is abundant. Second, the pool of cellular phosphopeptides was dephosphorylated and split into aliquots (Supporting Information Figure S4). One aliquot was treated with MAP4K4 kinase domain and ATP, and the other aliquot served as a control. After the kinase reaction, phosphopeptides were enriched and analyzed by LC-MS/MS. Phosphorylated peptides that were present in kinase-treated but not control samples in all three replicates were determined to be in vitro MAP4K4 substrates (Figure 2B and Supporting Information Table S3). The experiment revealed that MAP4K4 is almost exclusively a threonine kinase (Figure 2C), a result consistent with recent predictions of kinase specificity based on the identity of the DFG + 1 residue.16 In vitro, MAP4K4 preferred a pTL motif, although other hydrophobic aliphatic residues were accepted C-terminal to threonine (Figure 2B,D). To our knowledge, these results are the first to assess the substrate specificity of MAP4K4 by a direct method. The known conformational instability of full-length MAP4K4 led us to perform the KALIP experiment using recombinant MAP4K4 kinase domain instead (Pfizer unpublished data). A consequence of this choice was that the assay probed the intrinsic, active site-based specificity of the kinase rather than physiological elements of specificity created by protein−protein interactions or the structures of multiprotein complexes. The KALIP protocol limits false positive results; it does so first by eliminating peptides that are not phosphorylated in the cell and B
DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.5b00679 ACS Chem. Biol. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX
Letters
ACS Chemical Biology also by including only substrates that are completely dephosphorylated prior to the kinase reaction. False negatives are possible because some real substrates may not be basally phosphorylated and because some other substrates may be destroyed upon trypsinization.14 For instance, we believe that this is why known substrates were not identified in our analysis. Consequently, this assay yields confidence in the substrates that are detected, but it does not exclude the existence of additional undetected substrates. Comparison of the cellular phosphoproteomic and KALIP results indicated that, of all the substrates identified in vitro, FARP1 was the most downregulated in compound 1-treated cells (Figure 3A and Supporting Information Figure S5 and Table S3). To determine whether this was a bona f ide kinase substrate interaction, we validated MAP4K4-catalyzed FARP1 phosphorylation using recombinant-derived full-length FARP1 and MAP4K4. Recombinant full-length FARP1 was immunoprecipitated from HEK293 cells and treated in kinase reaction buffer either with vehicle or recombinant full-length MAP4K4, itself also immunoprecipitated from HEK293 cells. Site-specific phosphorylation of FARP1 at T24 by MAP4K4 was determined by LC-MS/MS (Figure 3A). Notably, FARP1 was not phosphorylated by MAP4K4 at either S23 or S20, demonstrating the site specificity of the reaction (Figure 3B). Kinase−substrate interactions are frequently transient or based on low affinity, and these factors may contribute to the difficulty of their identification.17 However, to our surprise, we found that FARP1 coimmunoprecipitated with MAP4K4 (Figure 3C). These results are consistent with previously observed protein−protein interactions between MAP4K4 and other FERM domain-containing proteins.6,18 For instance, the ERM proteins were shown to bind to and coimmunoprecipitate with MAP4K4 through interactions in the FERM domain.6 Pyk2 was also shown to interact with MAP4K4 through its FERM domain and to phosphorylate MAP4K4.18 The location of the T24 phosphosite on FARP1 adjacent to the FERM domain suggests a possible mechanism through which FARP1− MAP4K4 binding could mediate T24 phosphorylation, or vice versa (Figure 3D). The FARP1−MAP4K4 interaction bears the hallmarks of the interaction between MAP4K4 and one of its known direct substrate classes, the ERM proteins, including phosphorylation at a pTL motif and binding to a FERM domain-containing protein.6 Additionally, in HEK293 cells, we found that FARP1 was also localized to the perimeter of the cell, similar to the ERM proteins (Figure 4A and Supporting Information Figure S6).6 Experiments to determine whether this localization could be modified by compound 1 were inconclusive. These results led us to question the role that MAP4K4-dependent phosphorylation has in processes known to depend on FARP1. FARP1 is a pleckstrin, RhoGEF, and FERM domaincontaining protein that has principally been studied for its role in neurite formation.19−21 In this context, FARP1 contributes to dendrite formation and branching and has been shown to increase dendrite length in primary rat neurons. MAP4K4 knockdown by siRNA increases neurite length in SHSY5Y cells.22 Additionally, MAP4K4 inhibitors with more poorly characterized specificity have been shown to affect neurite outgrowth.23 However, it is not clear if neurite outgrowth is regulated by MAP4K4-dependent phosphorylation or by protein−protein interactions. Therefore, we treated SH-SY5Y cells with vehicle, compound 1, or staurosporine, a positive control for neurite outgrowth, and measured neurite
Figure 3. FARP1 is directly phosphorylated by MAP4K4 and coimmunoprecipitates with MAP4K4. (A) In vitro full-length MAP4K4 phosphorylates full-length FARP1 at T24. Error bars represent SEM; *, P < 0.05; **, P < 0.01, Student’s two tailed ttest. (B) MS/MS fragmentation determines the precise phosphosite that is regulated by MAP4K4. (C) MAP4K4 coimmunoprecipitates with FARP1 in cells overexpressing MAP4K4 and FARP1. FARP1Flag is immunoprecipitated, and MAP4K4 was found to coelute. Three experiments are presented to demonstrate reproducibility. (D) The structure of FARP1 and location of the MAP4K4 phosphorylation site. The FARP1-MAP4K4 phosphosite is located proximal to the FARP1 FERM domain.
length per cell (Figure 4B,C and Supporting Information Figure S7; magnified images, Figure S8).24 C
DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.5b00679 ACS Chem. Biol. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX
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ACS Chemical Biology
of MAP4K4 kinase activity and build a foundation for future work examining the interplay of MAP4K4 and FARP1.
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ASSOCIATED CONTENT
S Supporting Information *
The Supporting Information is available free of charge on the ACS Publications website at DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.5b00679. Methods; synthesis and characterization of compound 1; percent of phosphopeptides generated for in vitro KALIP reactions measured by LC-MS/MS; SILAC ratios for FARP1 peptide after treatment with compound 1; subcellular localization of FARP1; Thermo Fisher Array Scan VTI software overview for identifying neurite length and cell number; SH-SY5Y micrographs after vehicle, staurosporine, or compound 1 treatment (PDF). Proteins with at least one phosphopeptide up- or downregulated by greater than 1.5-fold (XLSX). Phosphopeptides differentially regulated upon MAP4K4 inhibition (XLSX). Phosphopeptides enriched and analyzed by LC-MS/MS (XLSX).
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AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Author
*E-mail: adam.schwaid@pfizer.com. Present Address #
Jiang Wu is presently at Shire Pharmaceuticals.
Author Contributions
A.G.S., P.L., C.S., K.L.S., and J.K. performed the experiments. A.G.S., P.L., C.S., J.W., C.H., K.L.S., J.K., K.G., S.K.B., R.L.D., L.B., and P.A.C. conceived the experiments. A.G.S. wrote the paper.
Figure 4. Compound 1 increases neurite outgrowth in SH-SY5Y cells. (A) FARP1 localizes to the cell membrane in HEK293 cells, characteristic of other FERM proteins involved in cytoskeletal regulation (FARP1 is stained green; cell nuclei are stained blue). (B) Treatment of SH-SY5Y cells with compound 1 led to an increase in neurite outgrowth similar in magnitude to that with staurosporine (error bars represent SEM; ***, P < 0.005, Student’s two tailed t-test). (C) Compound 1 or staurosporine treatment increases neurite length, as indicated by βIII tubulin staining. DAPI (blue) and βIII tubulin (green) are overlaid.
Notes
The authors declare no competing financial interest.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS A manuscript describing the synthesis and development of a series of MAP4K4 inhibitors related to compound 1 authored by M. Ammirati, S. Bagley, S. Bhattacharya, L. Buckbinder, A. Carlo, R. Conrad, C. Cortes, R. Dow, M. Dowling, A. El-Kattan, K. Ford, C. Guimarães, D. Hepworth, W. Jiao, J. LaPerle, S. Liu, A. Londregan, P. Loria, M. Munchhof, S. Orr, D. Petersen, D. Price, A. Skoura, A. Smith, and J. Wang is in preparation. We thank these colleagues for their technical insights, advice, and work toward the development of MAP4K4 inhibitors. A.G.S., P.L., C.S., C.H., K.F.G., S.K.B., R.L.D., L.B., and P.A.C. are employees of Pfizer. All research was funded by Pfizer
Treatment with compound 1 over 3 days led to an increase in neurite length comparable in magnitude to the effect of staurosporine. These data suggest that MAP4K4 regulates neurite outgrowth through downstream phosphorylation. Although it is possible that this effect is mediated by another GCK family kinase, such as TNIK, the previously reported MAP4K4 knockdown results in conjunction with the reportedly high levels of MAP4K4 expression as compared to other GCK family kinases indicates that the effect on neurite outgrowth likely occurs through MAP4K4 (Supporting Information Figure S2).11 These results suggest a role for MAP4K4-dependent phosphorylation in neurite outgrowth In conclusion, combining phosphoproteomic analysis of the effects of a MAP4K4 inhibitor with in vitro assessment of MAP4K4 kinase specificity has shed new light on the biological and biochemical specificities of MAP4K4 as a protein kinase. The experiments have allowed us to study MAP4K4-dependent phosphorylation without altering the levels of MAP4K4 itself, and such insights into MAP4K4 are crucial because they predict the effects that could be expected from pharmacological MAP4K4 inhibition. These studies expand our understanding
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