Meeting the Needs of TSCA - ACS Symposium Series (ACS

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Educating the Environmental Chemical Professional R. L. PERRINE University of California, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Los Angeles, CA 90024 This article describes educational preparation particularly suited to the environmental chemical professional. As the decade of the 1970's brought growing concern for the environment, the UCLA program leading to the degree of Doctor of Environmental Science and Engineering was developed. Discussion of this program includes a rationale for education in the 1980's, discussion of the body of knowledge seen to underlie the professional field, and the curriculum by which knowledge is transferred to students. Unique elements include on-campus interdisciplinary project work, and a several year off-campus internship. Final discussion addresses accomplishments and difficulties experienced, and takes a look to the future. The decade of the 19 70's has seen mushrooming growth in concern for environmental health and the broader issues of the natural environment. This attitude is reflected in much legislation. Following incidents involving chemical pollutants, and recognition of chemical hazards and potential impacts of toxic substances, the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) was added to prior law. Objectives of TSCA and its impacts on the chemical industry are addressed elsewhere within this symposium. The present paper addresses education to meet the mandates of TSCA. TSCA poses a new challenge to universities. While toxics are uniquely a chemical problem, their impacts extend to involve other disciplines as well. The life cycle of a toxic substance starts with chemical feedstocks. It continues through the myriad steps of manufacture and processing, through use, and ends only after end-product disposal. During this cycle there are many chances for "leaks" into the environment. Risks posed may appear primarily as risks to occupational safety and health, to general human health, or to particularly sensitive or important 0097-6156/83/0213-0197$06.00/0 © 1983 American Chemical Society Ingle; TSCA's Impact on Society and Chemical Industry ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1983.

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elements of some ecosystem. As a r e s u l t I t o f t e n w i l l prove necessary to understand processes extending throughout the b i o sphere. Thus education to manage t o x i c s must b r i n g a number of d i s c i p l i n e s to bear i n p a r a l l e l on any problem; educational needs are very broad, often i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y , but not beyond our a b i l i t y to perceive, to plan, and to execute e f f e c t i v e l y . The remainder of t h i s paper w i l l address the broader p r e p a r a t i o n of the environmental p r o f e s s i o n a l which f i t s needs derived from the s e v e r a l environmental l e g i s l a t i v e mandates, and which by i t s nature i s p a r t i c u l a r l y w e l l s u i t e d to the s p e c i f i c needs of TSCA and the environmental chemical p r o f e s s i o n a l . The b a s i s f o r d i s c u s s i o n i s a graduate l e v e l program i n the a p p l i c a t i o n of environmental science developed over more than a decade at UCLA. Our experience suggests that i f TSCA-like concerns are to continue and to be met, e d u c a t i o n a l approaches such as t h i s one w i l l l i k e l y assume a growing importance. A C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of Environmental Science Educational Needs Representative t o x i c substance problems f o r which education i s l i k e l y to be needed range widely. Example challenges include the f a t e of t o x i c and hazardous m a t e r i a l s i n the a i r e n v i r o n ment, cost comparisons of treatment and d i s p o s a l a l t e r n a t i v e s f o r hazardous m a t e r i a l s , p e r s i s t e n c e and movement through the geohydrologic environment, e f f e c t s of t o x i c s on plants and a n i mals, and so f o r t h . H i s t o r i c a l l y there has been no one p r o f e s s i o n both broad enough and focused to a n t i c i p a t e and understand the i n t e r a c t i o n s among the d i s c i p l i n e s involved ( 1 ) . Each f i e l d has i t s quota of experts and t h e i r expertise can be c a l l e d on to evaluate some environmental phenomena. However, there has been no expertise to draw together and i n t e g r a t e these f i e l d s . By t h e i r nature, problems faced i n environmental h e a l t h , the n a t u r a l environment, and resources are s o c i e t a l problems; the subject of p u b l i c p o l i c y d e c i s i o n s . Experience suggests that i n such s i t u a t i o n s f i n d i n g s as to f a c t and consequences must be e s t a b l i s h e d separately from and should precede p o l i c y d e c i s i o n s i n s o f a r as p o s s i b l e , thus gaining o b j e c t i v i t y . However, the s c i e n t i s t seeking u s e f u l input soon r e a l i z e s that the ultimate goal must be kept i n mind at every step. It estab l i s h e s the language i n which r e s u l t s must be s t a t e d , d e t e r mines p r i o r i t i e s since problems g r e a t l y outnumber resources to s o l v e them, and sets depth of appropriate i n v e s t i g a t i o n . Another e s s e n t i a l i s that the work of the environmental p r o f e s s i o n a l i s a p p l i e d research; the use of more b a s i c informat i o n generated by others. D i f f e r e n t t o o l s , philosophy and motiv a t i o n are needed. "Man seems to have at l e a s t two n a t u r a l drives which put the impetus behind science. One i s the need to understand; the second i s , that once man understands he wants to see what he can do with that understand-

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ing. I t ' s i n the dichotomy that I see the d i f f e rence between b a s i c and a p p l i e d research. Basic research i s done to understand; a p p l i e d research i s done to do. The methods used may be the same. The d i f f i c u l t y and s o p h i s t i c a t i o n of the work may be the same. Both are important. M o t i v a t i o n i s the only d i f f e r e n c e . " (2) In response to t h i s need the U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a , Los Angeles, e s t a b l i s h e d a curriculum to educate the "Environmental Doctor". I t i s (formally) an Interdepartmental Program i n E n v i ronmental Science and Engineering, and leads to the degree of Doctor of Environmental Science and Engineering. I t s goals are d i f f e r e n t than those of other d o c t o r a l - l e v e l , environment-rel a t e d degree programs, thus i t uses somewhat d i f f e r e n t t o o l s and educational environment. This p r e s e n t a t i o n w i l l document the program b a s i s and accomplishments, a l l with p a r t i c u l a r concern for needs derived from TSCA. R a t i o n a l e f o r Education i n the 1980's and Beyond Needs i n environmental education d e r i v e d i r e c t l y from the dozens of problem areas which need to be addressed and which a l l share c e r t a i n c h a r a t e r i s t i c s . They are p o r t i o n s of a c o n t i n u um. Study of a t o x i c s problem may s t a r t at any p o i n t ; f o r examp l e , with the chemical process by which a t o x i c i s f i r s t made, or with impact on aquatic ecosystems. But s o c i e t a l l y u s e f u l knowledge means learning about the e n t i r e continuum, not j u s t d e t a i l s of a s p e c i a l i z e d p o r t i o n . Environmental education d i rected toward t o x i c substances must extend beyond a chemical technology and i t s d i r e c t impact to the f u l l range of impacts and options — what w i l l make them "safe", t h e i r i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l costs, and the way they may f i t i n t o the f a b r i c of s o c i e t y — a l l such knowledge must reach decision-makers. The f a c t that such problems e x i s t , and that past education has not prepared a generation w e l l to deal with them, leads to the r a t i o n a l e behind UCLA's Environmental Science and Engineering. As noted by Wolman (_3), e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s are cont i n u a l l y asked to prepare those who w i l l search f o r solutions of s o c i e t a l problems. Problems In the r e a l world do not separate nicely into " d i s c i p l i n e s " . We do not see the "botany problem", or the "meteorology problem", or the "chemical engineering problem", as such. Rather, we see a minor by-product from a f a c i l i t y designed by a chemical engineer. Released, i t i s t r a n s ported by meteorological processes, and becomes of concern because a b o t a n i s t foresees e c o l o g i c a l damage as a consequence of i t s downwind presence. Thus while d i s c i p l i n e s and departments i n u n i v e r s i t i e s are an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e convenience and provide a perhaps needed foundation f o r s p e c i a l i z e d research and educat i o n , educational i n s t i t u t i o n s also must address problems which do not f i t n i c e l y i n t o present d i s c i p l i n a r y u n i t s .


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For at l e a s t the l a s t century science has been f i s s i o n ing. Natural science has become physics, chemistry, mathematics and b i o l o g y . Biology has f u r t h e r s p l i t i n t o botany, zoology, molecular biology and microbiology. Even w i t h i n microbiology there i s a separation i n t o v i r o l o g y and b a c t e r i o l o g y , and f u r ther d i s t i n c t i o n between d i s p a r a t e environments such as the microbiology of s o i l s and of f r e s h water aquatic ecosystems. Perhaps t h i s pattern has helped good teaching and research f o l l o w i n g the t r a d i t i o n a l r e d u c t i o n i s t approach (_4). This approach — i n which a component of a f i e l d of study i s i s o l a t e d , e l i m i n a t i n g the i n f l u e n c e of v a r i a b l e s , and studied i n depth — no doubt has contributed to much of the i n c r e d i b l y r a p i d pace of advance over the recent past (_5) · However, there comes a point at which the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l pattern and the accompanying l e a r n ing experience no longer serves i n an optimal f a s h i o n . A kind of t r i b a l i s m i s r e i n f o r c e d by d i s c i p l i n a r y jargon and by t r e a t ing those who venture from the t e r r i t o r y of the t r i b e (or who intrude on i t ) as enemy a l i e n s (_5). Further, a pattern perhaps u s e f u l f o r b a s i c teaching and research gains a perhaps unearned i n t e l l e c t u a l s i g n i f i c a n c e as departmental administrative u n i t s c e r t i f y themselves as " d i s c i p l i n e s " (_4 ) . No high q u a l i t y research i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s l i k e l y to be ent i r e l y f r e e of the r e d u c t i o n i s t approach Ç5). On the other hand, s u c c e s s f u l problem-oriented research cannot be c a r r i e d out i n splendid i s o l a t i o n (4J. There i s a need to transcend reduct i o n ! sm as preparation f o r the major problems of our time, which r e q u i r e that information be i n t e g r a t e d so that a complex system can be studied as a whole. An elegant a n a l y s i s of t h i s need has been published by Odum (6). Students must be a t t r a c t e d to working on these problems and exposed to the h o l i s t i c view e s s e n t i a l to t h e i r s o l u t i o n (J5, _7). Without a d e l i b e r a t e e f f o r t along these l i n e s , problems w i l l be attacked i n b i t s and pieces as graduating students — clones of the f a c u l t y who have educated them — hack away at the mini seule, exposed p o r t i o n of a problem conveniently close to t h e i r graduate school s p e c i a l t y . Under such conditions problem s o l u t i o n s are not l i k e l y . The O r i g i n of UCLA's Environmental Science and

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In 1969, with r e c o g n i t i o n of environmental problems emerging, the resources of the U n i v e r s i t y were put to work for the b e n e f i t of the s t a t e of C a l i f o r n i a . Essential characteristics of what was needed to resolve environmental problems became apparent from work addressing C a l i f o r n i a ' s c r i t i c a l concern: a i r q u a l i t y . These contrasted with b a s i c research themes. At t h i s point Dr. W i l l a r d F. Libby, Professor of Chemistry and Nobel Laureate, stepped i n . Dr. Libby had an idea — perhaps not f o r the f i r s t time i n h i s l i f e — but a t r u l y h e r e t i c a l idea among those grounded i n b a s i c science. What he envisioned as e s s e n t i a l to solve the i n h e r e n t l y i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y problems


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of the environment was a c l i n i c a l kind of p r e p a r a t i o n . Wellgrounded people, steeped i n the b a s i c s , d i d not i n h i s view need ever longer and more c l o s e range i n s p e c t i o n of that d i s c i p l i n e l i m i t e d dot i n the universe that represents the usual Ph.D. dissertation. No matter how s k i l l f u l l y executed, most such e f f o r t was not s u f f i c i e n t l y broad-ranging to s t r i k e any r e a l t a r g e t , and so was i n e f f e c t i v e i n s o l v i n g problems. What Dr. Libby at t h i s time properly perceived as missing was exposure to the r e a l world of problem-solving; hence the need f o r a c l i n i c a l kind of p r e p a r a t i o n . Thus the concept he proposed was to create the "Environmental Doctor" — the competent g e n e r a l i s t , reasonably s k i l l e d i n a l l aspects of the e n v i ronment and expert i n some, with the p e r c e p t i o n and judgement to s e l e c t those few c r i t i c a l parts of a problem e s s e n t i a l to i t s s o l u t i o n , and the management s k i l l s to assemble a team to perform the a c t u a l s o l u t i o n e f f o r t . T h i s , then, became the task of a small core of UCLA f a c u l t y : to create an a c t u a l academic program which, by contrast with chance or the slowly accumulating scars of experience, would e f f i c i e n t l y prepare people f o r the t r a n s i t i o n from the i d e a l i z e d , contemplative world of the u n i v e r s i t y to the harsh and often political realities of environmental problem-solving. Program ideas were tested and the concept took on a recognizable structure. A program e x i s t e d , even i f i n embryo form and only as a "bootstrap" operation, l a r g e l y fueled by the after-hours e f f o r t of a number of the p r i n c i p a l s . The Body of Knowledge and the Curriculum The s t r u c t u r e of the u n i v e r s i t y , and i t s t r a d i t i o n a l d e l e gations of a u t h o r i t y and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , are designed to assure the o r d e r l y t r a n s f e r of knowledge to students who are then awarded a degree. Environmental Science and Engineering prepares p r o f e s s i o n a l s f o r environmental problem-solving by p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a c l i n i c a l i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y curriculum. Thus i t d i f f e r s s u b s t a n t i a l l y from r e l a t e d but conventional Ph.D. Programs. Our o b j e c t i v e i s to develop a high l e v e l of s k i l l at the a p p l i c a t i o n of knowledge. To do so r e q u i r e s a d e l i c a t e b a l ancing of emphasis: a s u f f i c i e n t b a s i c depth, plus a u s e f u l l e v e l of competence across a mix of d i s c i p l i n e s . Breadth of i n t e r e s t makes i t q u i t e l i k e l y that i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y program a c t i v i t i e s w i l l tread on the toes of others. T e r r i t o r i a l j e a l o u s i e s , and the f a c t that there i s not yet w e l l d e f i n e d , demonstrated theory or methodology f o r much of the work to be done combine to ensure a degree of controversy (_8). Thus i t i s e s s e n t i a l to ask what i s the nature of l e a r n i n g approp r i a t e to the degree, and how a proper l e v e l of achievement can be assured, and to f i n d a s a t i s f a c t o r y answer. Body

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documents developed by the UCLA Environmental Science and E n g i neering Interdepartmental Committee as a response to recommendat i o n s of the Graduate C o u n c i l growing from a s i x - y e a r review of the Program.) The body of knowledge which should u n d e r l i e the program i s defined by the nature of the p r o f e s s i o n . Graduates can expect to be employed to assess impacts of a l t e r n a t i v e courses of a c t i o n on the environment and resources, to recommend sound p o l i c y , and to devise means to implement p o l i c y once a d e c i s i o n has been reached. T y p i c a l l y , such a c t i v i t y w i l l r e quire q u a n t i t a t i v e synthesis of information from several t r a d i t i o n a l academic d i s c i p l i n a r y f i e l d s . Towards t h i s end, students must achieve a broad understanding of the environment and r e sources and acquire t e c h n i c a l and i n t e g r a t i v e s k i l l s enabling them to f u n c t i o n at the highest l e v e l s of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . Graduates are employed i n t e c h n i c a l assessment and management p o s i t i o n s with governmental agencies, c o n s u l t i n g , and i n dustrial firms concerned with environment-related projects. Their r a p i d r i s e to r e l a t i v e l y h i g h - l e v e l p o s i t i o n s i s f e l t to be a r e s u l t of a s o c i e t a l need f o r s c i e n t i s t s with the advanced i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y t r a i n i n g provided. The present focus, i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y t r a i n i n g i n the environmental sciences and t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n , i s a s u c c e s s f u l one. We see no reason for major change. T h i s t r a i n i n g has been met i n the curriculum through courses, case s t u d i e s , and problem s o l v i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s . Based upon e v a l u a t i o n of the more u s e f u l courses and the views of f a c u l t y , students, and graduates, the necessary body of knowledge a s s o c i a t e d with the degree can be defined and organi z e d under three broad t o p i c s : environment, environment and technology, and environment and s o c i e t y . Subject matter i s presently taught i n courses i n departments spread over the u n i versity. Often the most u s e f u l content i s presented at an undergraduate or beginning graduate l e v e l , i n serious but general courses designed f o r departmental majors. The knowledge required under environment should be a t h o r ough understanding of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t e r r e s t r i a l , a i r , and water environments; of the b i o t a ; and of g e o l o g i c a l , b i o l o g ical, chemical, h y d r o l o g i c a l , and meteorological processes. This i s a considerable body of knowledge. However, l e s s i s a c t u a l l y required of our graduates: s p e c i f i c knowledge of those c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and processes of the environment that are subj e c t to disturbances (such as p o l l u t i o n ) , that represent r e sources that can be e x p l o i t e d , or that can serve as impediments to man's a c t i v i t i e s , together with the fundamental p r i n c i p l e s required to understand such processes. Knowledge required under environment and technology i s a compendium of the t e c h n i c a l and a n a l y t i c a l t o o l s necessary to s o l v i n g environmental problems, or to developing technology and p o l i c y that can avoid them. Required emphasis i s on energy technology, p a r t i c u l a r l y new energy sources; p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l technology; environmental measurement, modeling, and a n a l y s i s ;


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the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and sources of p o l l u t a n t s ; and the pathways through which p o l l u t a n t s impact human health and the e n v i r o n ment. The l e v e l of knowledge should be such that the i n d i v i d u a l could, i n p r i n c i p l e , use a l l necessary a n a l y t i c a l t o o l s . How ever, the major emphasis i n the curriculum should be on deve l o p i n g a knowledge of the appropriateness of v a r i o u s methods and technologies, t h e i r strong p o i n t s , and t h e i r shortcomings. The knowledge a s s o c i a t e d with environment and society r e l a t e s to the s o c i a l and i n s t i t u t i o n a l f a c t o r s relevant to e n v i ronmental problem-solving. Emphasis should be on methods f o r assessment of s o c i a l and economic impacts, l e g a l c o n s t r a i n t s and processes, and implementation of p o l i c y . C l e a r l y , the t o t a l body of knowledge as presented above exceeds what might r e a l i s t i c a l l y be mastered i n the f i r s t two years of preparation f o r the Doctor of Environmental Science and Engineering. However, considerable s e l e c t i v i t y i s p o s s i b l e based upon the needs and previous background of an i n d i v i d u a l . As an example, a thorough understanding of environmental t o x i c o logy, the chemistry of t o x i c s and methods f o r t h e i r d e s t r u c t i o n , and r e l a t e d r e g u l a t i o n s would reasonably o f f s e t a s u p e r f i c i a l knowledge of a i r p o l l u t i o n . From our experience, f u r t h e r refinement to e s t a b l i s h a s u i t a b l e minimum under the three t o p i c s above appears best ac complished by d o c t o r a l f a c u l t y committees s e l e c t e d f o r the i n d i v i d u a l , c o n s i d e r i n g i n d i v i d u a l needs. The b a s i c body of know ledge might be conceived as an understanding of the environment, i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and processes, a knowledge of environmentr e l a t e d technology, an a b i l i t y to use q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y t i c a l techniques, and an a p p r e c i a t i o n for the s o c i a l and i n s t i t u t i o n a l framework of environmental p o l i c y . Requirements at Entrance and the Curriculum Framework. The curriculum i s rather simple and s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . Formal entry r e q u i r e s a Master's degree i n a f i e l d w i t h i n the n a t u r a l s c i ences, engineering, or p u b l i c h e a l t h . P r e f e r a b l y the Master's would i n c l u d e a strong, independent t h e s i s e f f o r t . The i n t e n t of t h i s requirement i s to insure that the student have (and r e t a i n ) competence w i t h i n an e s t a b l i s h e d d i s c i p l i n e . Students are c a r e f u l l y selected from a p p l i c a n t s on the b a s i s of p r i o r performance, t e s t scores, recommendations, and i n t e r v i e w s , and thus with a goal of s e l e c t i n g s y n e r g i s t i c combinations of i n t e l l e c t , a p t i t u d e , and motivation l i k e l y to lead to success. In the four-year UCLA program, students s u c c e s s f u l l y : ο take a d d i t i o n a l courses i n areas p e r i p h e r a l to the s t u dent's s p e c i a l t y i n order to o b t a i n the breadth necessary to s u c c e s s f u l l y work on problems i n h e r e n t l y i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y i n nature, ο take a d d i t i o n a l courses i n the Master's area as judged necessary to e s t a b l i s h and r e t a i n an appropriate l e v e l of d i s c i p l i n a r y competence,


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take and pass a s e r i e s of cumulative exams that s t r e s s current awareness and a b i l i t y to respond, spend a year at the u n i v e r s i t y as a member of an i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y team p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n an i n t e n s i v e problem-sol v i n g experience, take an o r a l examination f o r advancement to candidacy, spend s e v e r a l years as an i n t e r n at an outside i n s t i t u t i o n , g a i n i n g applied research experience under guidance, demonstrate acquired competence during a one-term return period a t UCLA, and prepare w r i t t e n and o r a l reports to document the a p p l i e d research experience f o r deposit i n the archives at UCLA.

Course P r e p a r a t i o n . No s p e c i f i c there are suggested courses through met. Subject matter i s conveniently broad topics as developed i n the p r i o r TABLE I .

courses are r e q u i r e d , but which requirements can be organized under the three section.

BREADTH COURSES

The Environment Environmental Chemistry Environmental Geology Air Pollution Water P o l l u t i o n Hydrology Oceanography Meteorology Ecology S o i l Science Microbiology Environment and Technology A i r Pollution Control Water P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l Energy Resources and Technology Risk Assessment Microbiological Control Environmental Health Environmental Toxicology Occupational Health and Safety Environmental and P o l l u t i o n Environmental Measurement Modeling Environment and Society Environmental Law Environmental Impact Assessment Environmental P o l i c y Environmental Regulation Implementation Environmental Planning and Resource Economics Management Not a l l students take e x a c t l y the same program of cour ses. An i n d i v i d u a l ' s curriculum w i l l be determined with the approval of h i s or her guidance committee and the graduate a d v i sor. Areas of concentration, u s u a l l y growing from an a n t i c i pated f u t u r e , are encouraged. For many subjects present courses i n t r a d i t i o n a l depart ments deal adequately with needed content. For other subjects s p e c i a l l y developed content i s e s s e n t i a l . P r e s e n t l y , students have been meeting the requirement f o r knowledge by about 5 se l e c t e d courses that could be l i s t e d under the heading of e n v i ronment , 4 to 6 under environment and technology, and 4 under


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environment and s o c i e t y . I t i s a n t i c i p a t e d that there w i l l be a modest growth i n courses developed s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r Environment a l Science and Engineering, p r i m a r i l y to ensure that e s s e n t i a l content i s not neglected. P r e r e q u i s i t e s include mathematics ( c a l c u l u s through d i f f e r e n t i a l equations and s t a t i s t i c s ) , chemi s t r y (through o r g a n i c ) , b i o l o g y , and earth science courses. A l l are p r e f e r a b l y part of p r e p a r a t i o n p r i o r to admission. L i t e r a t u r e as w e l l as l e c t u r e courses can serve as a b a s i s f o r the required body of knowledge and hence student preparation. A vigorous e f f o r t i s made to encourage regular and current reading of the l i t e r a t u r e . The subject area i s v a s t , and a p e r i o d i c a l s b i b l i o g r a p h y i s very u s e f u l . Problems Courses. The i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y team problem-solv i n g experience — the UCLA "Problems Courses" — are a unique and e s s e n t i a l p a r t of the curriculum. U s u a l l y about three f a c u l t y from d i f f e r e n t backgrounds provide guidance, along with p o s t - i n t e r n s h i p stage students, to perhaps s i x second-year doct o r a l students i n a s a t u r a t i o n teaching environment. The r a t i o n a l e i s that leaders of problem-solving teams of the f u t u r e should experience as e a r l y as p o s s i b l e the r i g o r s of addressing open-ended problem statements and r e a l - t i m e decision-making. They a l s o l e a r n the demands that up-to-date, innovative use of more b a s i c research places on problem s o l v e r s . Thus these u n i que courses r e q u i r e students to quantify and measure necessary parameters, perform c r i t i c a l e v a l u a t i o n , and e d i t and process t e c h n i c a l and socioeconomic information. F i n a l l y , they r e q u i r e the e f f e c t i v e communication of study r e s u l t s through a f i n a l report on a complex, p o l i c y - r e l a t e d s u b j e c t , both to the competent lay-person and the t e c h n i c a l s p e c i a l i s t . Subjects have included almost the f u l l range of p o s s i b l e topics. In each case study, r e s u l t s have been pepared as a formal Environmental Science and Engineering r e p o r t . A l i s t of r e p o r t s and sponsoring o r g a n i z a t i o n s i s included as an appendix. The b e n e f i t of problems courses i s not l i m i t e d to e n r o l l e d Environmental Science and Engineering students. As noted, e n v i ronmental problems always involve p o l i c y , and t h i s demands deep involvement of the s o c i a l s c i e n c e s . We have achieved this l a r g e l y through p a r t i c i p a t i o n drawn from relevant non-science d i s c i p l i n e s , and thus a t r u l y i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y team e f f o r t . The deeper probing made p o s s i b l e by an e f f o r t shared with b a s i c s c i e n c e and engineering a l s o i s encouraged. A p a r t i c u l a r value to such e f f o r t s derives from the f a c t that r e a l i t i e s of an uneven data or knowledge base f r e q u e n t l y l i m i t the problem-solving that can be accomplished. T r a n s f e r r i n g knowledge of the problem may encourage needed research i n depth. Internships. Much l i k e problems courses, i n t e r n s h i p s r e present a unique element of the c u r r i c u l u m . Internships have proved easy to arrange and to monitor; p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n s t i t u -


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t i o n s are included as an appendix. Interns each arrange f o r t h e i r own p o s i t i o n though with a great deal of a s s i s t a n c e from f a c u l t y , and (with a maturing program) from graduates and other interns. Internships are paid p o s i t i o n s , with each i n d i v i d u a l expected to earn h i s keep. The q u a l i t i e s we seek i n an i n t e r n ship are t h r e e f o l d : ο a p o s i t i o n which w i l l challenge and provide r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for the i n t e r n , ο s u i t a b l e i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y character to the problems ad dressed, ο an o r g a n i z a t i o n with an earned r e p u t a t i o n f o r l e a d e r s h i p , and which r e g u l a r l y addresses the more d i f f i c u l t and c h a l lenging of environmental problems. Interns are r e g u l a r l y v i s i t e d by f a c u l t y who discuss t h e i r work and progress with them and t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r s , and maintain a continuing oversight u n t i l the i n t e r n s h i p requirement i s met. Interns also submit q u a r t e r l y reports on t h e i r progress. Many i n t e r n s h i p p o s i t i o n s have focused d i r e c t l y on t o x i c substances. G e n e r a l l y these have b u i l t on a p a r t i c u l a r l y w e l l s u i t e d undergraduate and M a s t e r ' s - l e v e l background, plus the oncampus broadening experience of the d o c t o r a l program, to s e l e c t an opportunity for growth through t o x i c s - r e l a t e d i n t e r n s h i p work which should lead to a productive, l i f e - l o n g c a r e e r . Specific i n t e r n s h i p p r o j e c t s have addressed b i o l o g i c a l monitoring f o r t o x i c s i n aquatic environments, the establishment of chemical t e s t methods p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t e d to environmental monitoring needs, occupational h e a l t h r i s k s , transport and bioaccumulation of t o x i c s i n the t e r r e s t r i a l environment, d i s p o s a l methods f o r s p e c i f i c compounds and f o r c l a s s e s of t o x i c s , and r e g u l a t o r y needs to meet the requirements of l e g i s l a t i o n . Perhaps the greatest value of the i n t e r n s h i p i s that s t u dents o f t e n gain the opportunity to work on t r u l y s i g n i f i c a n t problems. On campus, t h e i r e f f o r t s would be l i m i t e d by the a b i l i t y of the campus i n f r a s t r u c t u r e to address problems i n a r e a l r a t h e r than a r t i f i c i a l manner. Arrangements would be much l e s s f l e x i b l e , and l e s s r e a d i l y adapted to meet the emerging needs of the i n d i v i d u a l . True, an on-campus base might always be seen to involve l e s s r i s k and o f f e r greater a d m i n i s t r a t i v e convenience. However, i n our experience, there i s no p r e f e r r e d s u b s t i t u t e f o r a c t u a l experience. Concerns of P a r t i c u l a r Importance An i n n o v a t i v e program, even while seeking s o l u t i o n s to recognized problems and achieving s u b s t a n t i a l success, r a i s e s a host of concerns i n the minds of f a c u l t y and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s . These must be openly addressed. Experience with other i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y programs has evoked s i m i l a r concerns, and similar experience with t h e i r r e s o l u t i o n (_3, _4, _5). B r i e f overviews of primary areas of concern are presented here.


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Program Philosophy: To What Degree Should the u n i v e r s i t y Respond to Society's Needs? There i s a very b a s i c question as to whether or not the u n i v e r s i t y should d i r e c t l y prepare i n d i v i duals to solve s o c i e t y ' s problems. A p o i n t of view i s that the u n i v e r s i t y does b a s i c research and teaching w e l l , with few a l ternatives available. I t i s seen as unwise to attempt to extend l i m i t e d resources to address a p p l i e d t o p i c s , where p r i v a t e and governmental agencies are a c t i v e . I t i s argued that the u n i v e r s i t y should provide a q u a l i t y education i n depth. If breadth should then be needed i n a subsequent career, the argument continues that f u r t h e r preparation and experience can be obtained on the job. Wolman, though not i n agreement with t h i s t h e s i s , has summarized the p h i l o s o p h i c a l viewpoint s u c c i n c t l y : "the best g e n e r a l i s t i s a broken-down s p e c i a l i s t " ( 3 ) . It i s c l e a r that those who support the UCLA Environmental Science and Engineering approach and many others do not agree. One reason i s that a t t i t u d e s developed e a r l y tend to p e r s i s t throughout one's career (J5). Thus those who as students have been deprived of a h o l i s t i c view may s t r i v e i n e f f e c t u a l l y toward inappropriate and narrow goals, wasting scarce resources, and too-often remaining unaware of the greater accomplishment that might have been. T h i s viewpoint i s supported by evaluations such as that (regarding chemical engineers) of Metzner (£) : "We are producing too few employable Ph.D's. Further, t h e i r educat i o n i s frequently too narrow to q u a l i t y them f o r the s a l a r i e s which would make t h i s degree economically attractive..·" C u r r i c u l a r Questions. There i s a serious question as to what represents the proper balance between depth and breadth. An i n f i n i t e v a r i a t i o n i n r a t i o s i s p o s s i b l e . Tension between advocates of d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n s may always be a f a c t of l i f e for any i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y program. If UCLA experience i s a worthwhile guide, d i f f e r e n t p r o p o r t i o n s , but a l l i n a middle band and b u i l t on a s o l i d M a s t e r ' s - l e v e l foundation, may prove appropriate f o r i n d i v i d u a l students and t h e i r ultimate c a r e e r s . O r g a n i z a t i o n a l Structure and Support Base. Interdisciplinary e f f o r t s require cooperation beyond the usual unit boundaries. Mutual i n t e r e s t s of diverse f a c u l t y must be brought i n t o convergence. Perhaps more important, some a d m i n i s t r a t i v e "home" must be found. No doubt a v a r i e t y of a l t e r n a t i v e s , i n c l u d i n g unconventional ones, could prove s u i t a b l e . For the past 20 years supradepartmental o r g a n i z a t i o n s have h e l d a very important p o s i t i o n i n research. However, the t r a d i t i o n a l unit for teaching i n the American u n i v e r s i t y remains the department. As noted by Roy (4,), the world of the u n i v e r s i t y g e n e r a l l y presents a rather unimaginative p i c t u r e . Reasons should be obvious. " D i s c i p l i n e s " are part of a continuum. In f a c t , separ a t i o n i s sometimes d i f f i c u l t . P o r t i o n s of chemical and c i v i l engineering, both addressing h e a l t h - p r o t e c t i v e c o n t r o l techno-


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l°8y> provide an example. Since no t r u l y fundamental d e f i n i t i o n can be made, an o p e r a t i o n a l one i s used. With which u n i t s i s " d i s c i p l i n e X" connected? The answer i s the "department of X". Thus a g e n e r a l l y accepted " d i s c i p l i n e " r e s u l t s when enough i n s t i t u t i o n s e s t a b l i s h roughly s i m i l a r departmental administrative units. There i s then a c i r c l e of recognized peers, able (and most w i l l i n g ) to compliment each other's s c h o l a r l y discoveries. It i s t h i s c i r c l e that i s e s s e n t i a l for favorable review and thus the promotion of capable i n d i v i d u a l f a c u l t y . Many arrangements are p o s s i b l e for an innovative, i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y program. A l i k e l y yet unfortunate response to changes w i t h i n the campus establishment may be s i m i l a r to that" from the s u r g i c a l i n s e r t i o n of a f o r e i g n organ into a human body — a serious e f f o r t by the host to r e j e c t the i n t r u d i n g e n t i t y , r e gardless of i t s p o t e n t i a l value or even n e c e s s i t y . At t h i s juncture there i s an absolutely c r i t i c a l need for academic statesmanship. The p r i n c i p a l burden w i l l f a l l on academic administrators: they w i l l need to demonstrate leadership, to devise c r e a t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , and they must provide the e s s e n t i a l resources (despite shortages everywhere). Faculty Relationships. F a c u l t y s e l e c t e d to guide a program and p r o v i s i o n s f o r t h e i r future are c r i t i c a l to success. Qualif i e d p o t e n t i a l f a c u l t y are l i k e l y to ask s e v e r a l very important questions. How w i l l promotion and tenure be decided? Will l e a v i n g e s t a b l i s h e d d i s c i p l i n a r y departments aligned with prof e s s i o n a l and s c h o l a r l y s o c i e t i e s jeopardize t h e i r future? For c o n t i n u i t y , a core of f a c u l t y must be acquired and held together. These must not only cover the necessary range of expert i s e , but also have a continuing stake i n the program's success — a l l i e d but independent and non-responsible departments are a l l too l i k e l y at some f u t u r e time to f i n d that t h e i r current best i n t e r e s t s l i e elsewhere, and withdraw " f i r m " commitments. Thus i t must be p o s s i b l e to s u c c e s s f u l l y bring i n q u a l i f i e d f a c u l t y , and give them the autonomy, a c c o u n t a b i l i t y , and rewards needed f o r them to ensure the h e a l t h and v i g o r of the program. Research done i s l i k e l y to be judged by t r a d i t i o n a l i s t s as not f a l l i n g w i t h i n the mainstream of a d i s c i p l i n e , and not s u i t ed to i t s p r e s t i g e j o u r n a l s . Therefore i t i s s a i d to be of diminished q u a l i t y . In point of f a c t , t r a d i t i o n a l d i s c i p l i n e oriented f a c u l t y have no basis for judging interdisciplinary research and o f t e n make no substantive e f f o r t to become informed (J>). Thus i t becomes p a r t i c u l a r l y important for i n t e r d i s c i p l i nary groups to have t h e i r own departmental s t a t u r e with regard to a l l matters of tenure and promotion. Student R e l a t i o n s h i p s . E s t a b l i s h i n g and r e t a i n i n g the i d e n t i t y of students i n an i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y program can be a concern, d e r i v i n g from reward s t r u c t u r e , r e c o g n i t i o n , jobs, etc., i n the outside world. If our experience i s a u s e f u l


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guide, the student entering an interdisciplinary program of recognized high quality at a recognized institution is unlikely to face serious problems of identity in the future. On occasion it may be necessary to explain how and why the individual's particular preparation to become an "Environmental Doctor" came about and just what the qualifications actually mean. The greatest nuisance comes from some personnel officers and the simplicity of computerized thinking. They totally discourage a response not tailored to convention and the past. An initial strong argument in support of requiring a Master's at entrance was retention of a recognized disciplinary foundation. In fact, this was thought of in part as security against future failure in the interdisciplinary world. No such "backstop" utilization has been necessary. Experience shows, however, that each individual needs to have experienced independent, intellectually demanding work at least at this level. There are also ties to professional societies and journals which should retain value throughout one's career. UCLA students in Environmental Science and Engineering have established on-campus student organizations and an organization of program graduates. A number are active in emerging professional organizations such as the National Association of Environmental Professionals. The most valued relationship, however, is our well-established "family": program graduates and interns, other UCLA graduates who have worked on applied research projects with us, and including the employers of our graduates. The Anticipated Future By any pragmatic measure, the "Environmental Doctor" concept has become an established success. The future should appear bright. Unfortunately, concerns regarding acceptance of applied research and innovative education noted earlier apply in fact at UCLA as well as generally. There is a basic policy question which each institution must answer, and for which to obtain a forthright answer is not easy. The question Is: where do we place the balance point in a choice between education that most conveniently adapts to the needs for understanding and research publications of university faculty, and education designed to meet the needs of society? One would hope that in a future which, despite temporary remissions, is certain to be constrained by resources and ecology, the balance point will permit survival of a healthy share of each. If so, the kind of program represented by Environmental Science and Engineering at UCLA will grow. Literature Cited 1.

Libby, W. F. "The Profession of the Environmental Doctor: Five Years Old." Bioscience 1976, 26(12),751-752.


210 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

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Hubbard, H. M. quoted in Chemtech 1979, 9(9),566. Wolman, M. Gordon. "Interdisciplinary Education: A Continuing Experiment." Science 1977, 198(4319),800-804. Roy, Rustum. "Interdisciplinary Science on Campus - the Elusive Dream." Chem. and Engr. News 1977, 55(35),28-40. Cairns, John Jr. "Academic Blocks to Assessing Environmental Impacts of Water Supply Alternatives." Proc. of the Thames/Potomac Seminars 1979, Anne M. Blackburn, Ed., Interstate Commission on the Potomac River Basin; p 77. Odum, Eugene P. "The Emergence of Ecology as a New Integrative Discipline." Science 1977,195(4284),1289-1293. McCormick, J. Frank; Barrett, Gary W. "Ecological Manpower and Employment Opportunities." Bioscience 1979,29(7),419423. White, Irvin L. "Interdisciplinarity." The Environmental Professional 1979, 1,51-55. Metzner, A.B. "Projected Needs for Chemical Engineers in the 80's." Chem. Engr. Prog. 1980,76(10), 20-27.

Appendix I. Environmental Science and Engineering Applied Research Reports AIR POLLUTION AND CITY PLANNING — FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATION, EXPLANATION, also RESEARCH INVESTIGATION, Case Study of a Los Angeles District Plan. (1972) (Sponsor: U.S. EPA) FACING THE FUTURE; FIVE ALTERNATIVES FOR MAMMOTH LAKES, Report and Summary. (1972) (Sponsor: National Science Foundation) ENVIRONMENTAL, TECHNICAL, LEGAL AND SAFETY ASPECTS RELATED TO FLOATING NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS OFF THE COAST OF CALIFORNIA. (1973) (Sponsor: National Science Foundation) WATER QUALITY AND RECREATION IN THE MAMMOTH LAKES SIERRA, Report and Summary. (1973) (Sponsor: National Science Foundation) FUTURE ALTERNATIVES FOR THE SANTA MONICA PIER. (1973) (Sponsor: National Science Foundation) SURFICIAL AND ENGINEERING GEOLOGY OF PART OF THE MAMMOTH CREEK AREA, MONO COUNTY, CA. (1973) (Sponsor: National Science Foundation) MODELING LOS ANGELES PHOTOCHEMICAL AIR POLLUTION. (1975) (Sponsor: Dreyfus Foundation) POPULATION AND ENERGY IN LOS ANGELES; THE IMPACT OF DIFFERENT RATES OF GROWTH ON TRANSPORTATION, AIR QUALITY, HOUSING AND OPEN SPACE. Substudies include: TRANSPORTATION; IS THERE A CHOICE? IMPACT OF THE ENERGY CRISIS AND ESTIMATES OF FUTURE AIR QUALITY. THE CHANGING PATTERNS OF HOUSING DISTRIBUTION. RECREATION DEMAND IN THE SANTA MONICA MOUNTAINS IN 1990. (1975) (Sponsor: National Science Foundation) WILDERNESS WATER QUALITY; BISHOP CREEK BASELINE STUDY, 1974. (1975) (Sponsor: Water Resources Center) WASTE NUTRIENT RECYCLING USING HYDROPONIC AND AQUACULTURAL METHODS. (1975) (Sponsor: Rockefeller Foundation)


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NON-POINT SOURCE WATER QUALITY MONITORING, INYO NATIONAL FOREST, 1975. (1976) (Sponsor: U.S. Forest Service) THE SULFATES PROBLEM: ITS EFFECTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT AND MAN. (1976) (Sponsor: Dreyfus Foundation) SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA OUTER CONTINENTAL SHELF OIL DEVELOPMENT: ANALYSIS OF KEY ISSUES. (1976) (Sponsor: Ford Foundation) UTAH COAL FOR SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA ENERGY CONSUMPTION. (1976) (Sponsor: Scaife Family C h a r i t a b l e Trust) STUDY OF ALTERNATIVE LOCATIONS OF COAL-FIRED ELECTRIC GENERATION PLANTS TO SUPPLY ENERGY FROM WESTERN COAL TO THE DEPARTMENT OF WATER RESOURCES. (1977) (Sponsor: C a l i f o r n i a Department of Water Resources) BACTERIAL WATER QUALITY IN WILDERNESS AREAS. (1977) (Sponsor: Water Resources Center) AN ASSESSMENT OF ELECTRIC POWER GENERATING OPTIONS FOR THE STATE OF CALIFORNIA. VOLUMES I AND I I . Report and Summary. (1978) (Sponsor: C a l i f o r n i a Energy Commission) POWER PLANT SITING ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGY. (1978) (Sponsor: E l e c t r i c Power Research I n s t i t u t e ) DISPOSAL OR STORAGE OF COAL GASIFICATION WASTES IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA. (1979) (Sponsor: S c a i f e Family C h a r i t a b l e Trust) INSTITUTIONAL BARRIERS TO WASTE WATER REUSE IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA. (1979) (Sponsor: O f f i c e of Water Research and Technology) WORKER HEALTH AND SAFETY IN SOLAR THERMAL POWER SYSTEMS. Substudies include: OVERVIEW OF SAFETY ASSESSMENTS. DATA BASE AND METHODOLOGY FOR THE ESTIMATION OF WORKER INJURY RATES. THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS. ROUTINE FAILURE HAZARDS. OFF-NORMAL EVENTS. SOLAR PONDS. (1979) (Sponsor: U.S. Department of Energy) CALIFORNIA'S NORTH COAST WILD AND SCENIC RIVERS: ANALYSIS OF INTER-AGENCY PLANNING AND TECHNICAL ISSUES (1980) (Sponsor: Ford Foundation) ECOLOGICAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FACTORS IN COASTAL SITING OF A COAL-FUELED POWER PLANT AT ORMOND BEACH, CALIFORNIA. (1980) (Sponsor: Southern C a l i f o r n i a Edison Company) ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING FOR NEW TOWNS; EXPERIENCE AND SELECTED OPPORTUNITIES. (1980) (Sponsor: Royal Commission f o r J u b a i l and Yanbu, Saudi Arabia) SITING OF AN INTERNATIONAL FACILITY FOR STORAGE OF VITRIFIED RADIOWASTE. (1981) (Sponsor: E l e c t r i c Power Research I n stitute) COMMUNITY APPLICATIONS OF SMALL SCALE SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY SYSTEMS. (1981) (Sponsor: U.S. Department of Energy) ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS IN SITING A SOLAR-COAL HYBRID POWER PLANT. Substudies include: ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT. AIR QUALITY AND METEOROLOGICAL IMPACTS. (1981) (Sponsor: U.S. Department of Energy) THE POTENTIAL PRODUCTION OF AIR POLLUTANTS NEAR STPS RECEIVER SURFACES. (1981) (Sponsor: U.S. Department of Energy)


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OIL AND GREASE IN STORMWATER RUNOFF. (1982) (Sponsor: A s s o c i a t i o n of Bay Area Governments, Oakland, CA). EVALUATION OF GREAT DESERTS OF THE WORLD FOR PERPETUAL INTERNATIONAL RADIOWASTE STORAGE. (1982) (Sponsor: E l e c t r i c Power Research I n s t i t u t e ) Appendix I I .

L i s t of Internship Organizations

The Aerospace Corporation ANCO Engineers A s s o c i a t i o n of Bay Area Governments B a t t e l l e Memorial Laboratories Bechtel Corporation Boeing Engineering and Construction Booz-Allen Applied Research (U.S.) Bureau of Land Management C a l i f o r n i a A i r Resources Board C a l i f o r n i a Department of Health Services C a l i f o r n i a Energy Commission C a l i f o r n i a Water Resources C o n t r o l Board Committee on Resources, Land Use and Energy, State of C a l i f o r n i a Assembly Congressional Research D i v i s i o n , L i b r a r y of Congress Dames and Moore EBASCO Services E l e c t r i c Power Research Institute Environmental Resources Group, Jacobs Engineering Environmental Science A s s o c i a t e s , Inc. Eureka L a b o r a t o r i e s F l o r i d a Solar Energy Center Form and Substance IWG Corporation James M- Montgomery, Consulting Engineers Jet Propulsion Laboratory KVB Engineering LA/OMA P r o j e c t , Los Angeles County RECEIVED

August 23,

Lawrence Livermore Laboratory Los Angeles Department of Water and Power (U.S.) N a t i o n a l Bureau of Standards N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e of Occupat i o n a l Safety and Health Northern Energy Resources Company Oak Ridge N a t i o n a l Laboratory O f f i c e of Planning and Research, State of California O f f i c e of Technology Assessment, U.S. Congress P a c i f i c Environmental Services P r o j e c t Concern I n t e r n a t i o n a l (The Gambia) The Ralph M. Parsons Company Regional Water Quality C o n t r o l Board, C e n t r a l V a l l e y Region, C a l i f o r n i a Republic Geothermal Research and Development Associates Rockwell I n t e r n a t i o n a l Science A p p l i c a t i o n s , Inc. Scandpower (Norway) Socioeconomic Systems Southern C a l i f o r n i a Edison Company Systems A p p l i c a t i o n s , Inc. Technology Service Company TRW, Inc. U.S. Environmental P r o t e c t i o n Agency U.S. G e o l o g i c a l Survey U.S. Navy (Energy and Environmental Technology) Wright McLaughlin Water Engineers

1982


Meeting the Needs of TSCA - ACS Symposium Series (ACS

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