Partial Flipping To Support Learning in Lectures - ACS Publications

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Partial Flipping To Support Learning in Lectures David Read,*,1 Jonathan K. Watts,1,2 and Thomas J. Wilson1 1Faculty

of Natural and Environmental Sciences (Chemistry), University of Southampton, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, United Kingdom 2RNA Therapeutics Institute, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 368 Plantation St., Worcester, Massachusetts 01605, United States *E-mail: [email protected]

This chapter outlines and expands on content presented at the Biennial Conference on Chemical Education in 2014. The use of the flipped classroom model to develop understanding and to enhance subsequent in-lecture learning is discussed, with a focus on supporting incoming students in adapting to the demands of studying at a research-intensive university in the UK. ‘Partial flipping’, whereby part of a lecture is made available in video form prior to the scheduled session, has been employed to free-up time in class for more effective learning activities. Two case studies are described, including evidence regarding student engagement and their response to the interventions. The second study involves interactive pre-lecture videos which feature multiple-choice and open-answer questions. The latter approach provides valuable learning analytics to support the integration of just-in-time support into the framework of a lecture in order to meet the needs of students effectively and provide targeted, timely feedback.

Prologue “Why don’t they know how to learn, David?” was one of the first questions posed to me by an academic colleague when I first moved from a high school classroom to take up a position as a School Teacher Fellow in Chemistry at the University of Southampton, UK, in 2007. This somewhat multi-faceted © 2016 American Chemical Society Muzyka and Luker; The Flipped Classroom Volume 2: Results from Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


question summarized the challenge facing me in supporting staff and incoming first year students to ensure that the latter made a smooth transition from school-to-university. This chapter describes a journey, in the context of the UK education system, which has led to the ‘partial flipping’ of lecture content to support the implementation of active learning approaches in lecture-based courses. The approach was conceived specifically to counter the challenges posed to students in adapting to learning from lectures and engaging in independent study when their prior experience of teaching was very different. These challenges are by no means unique to the UK and the discussion will hopefully be of interest to educators everywhere.

Overview This chapter starts with an outline of some of the reasons why many UK students arrive at university not knowing ‘how to learn,’ based on the nature of the education system they have experienced alongside consideration of the university level education system they are entering. This includes brief discussion of government-funded national interventions which ran between 2005 and 2012 with the aim of supporting recruitment of students to STEM disciplines at university level, and their retention in degree programs once at university. Although the problems outlined are not unique to the UK, discussing them provides context for the work outlined herein by framing the objectives of those seeking to innovate in order to support students in adapting to a new learning environment. Flipped learning strategies have been used to support students at the University of Southampton in the first year of their studies, and these are outlined later in the chapter. Finally, in the conclusion there is some discussion of the potential of the flipped classroom to enhance university teaching in the future, helping to fend off the challenge of non-traditional approaches to the delivery of higher education, such as massive open online courses (MOOCs), and potentially leading to substantial change in the practice of those delivering teaching in a higher education environment.

Introduction: The UK Context After a decline which reached crisis point in the middle of the last decade, chemistry student numbers at UK universities have been growing consistently in recent years (1). The resurgence in interest in the discipline has been encouraged by a series of government-funded interventions to support ‘Strategically Important and Vulnerable Subjects’, which included the Royal Society of Chemistry’s (RSC) ‘Chemistry for our Future’ (CFOF) program (2) and the National HE STEM programme (3). The CFOF programme disbursed around $8M to UK universities between 2006 and 2009, part of which was used to support outreach activities designed to enthuse a new generation of youngsters about chemistry with the aim of encouraging wider uptake of related degree level courses (4). Most of the remaining money was used to support curriculum development, primarily at university level. 56 Muzyka and Luker; The Flipped Classroom Volume 2: Results from Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


One significant strand of activity under CFOF was the appointment of a number of School Teacher Fellows, based on a model pioneered at the University of Bristol where a highly experienced secondary school teacher had been appointed to such a position to develop an outreach programme and build links between the university and local schools (5). It should be noted that in the UK, secondary schools typically serve students aged 11-18 (i.e. Years 7-13), although some regions differ in having 11-16 secondary schools and separate ‘Sixth Form Colleges’ to serve students aged 16-18. During the period 2007-2013, a total of 12 School Teacher Fellows were recruited by the RSC from secondary schools and placed in local university chemistry departments where they undertook a range of different projects based on local needs (6). The corresponding author of this chapter was also recruited to an equivalent post, funded through a separate strand of CFOF activity based on higher education curriculum development, with a particular focus on the school-to-university transition. Bearing in mind that there were fewer than 40 university chemistry departments across the country at this time, this significant cohort of School Teacher Fellows was able to have a broad impact in the sector (6). One of the main objectives set for these individuals was to help university staff to better understand the capabilities of incoming students based on their prior experiences at school level, and to tailor the delivery of university courses accordingly (7). In order to understand the value of utilizing school teachers in this way, it is important to briefly consider the nature of the education experienced by UK students during their time at secondary school. The Impact of Testing and School Accountability on Student Preparedness for University Study In the UK there is a National Curriculum (8), which is essentially a set of subjects and standards used by schools to ensure that children learn the same things, with some flexibility in subject selection at age 13/14. The National Curriculum covers schooling up to age 16, when the overwhelming majority of students sit GCSE (General Certificate of Secondary Education) examinations in core compulsory subjects and any permitted options. After this, youngsters may elect to continue an academic education for a further two years, which typically involves the study of three or four subjects at A-level (Advanced level). There are numerous other educational options open to students at 16, but these will not be considered here since most students who progress to university to study chemistry come through the A-level route. Although there are several different A-level chemistry specifications available for teachers to select from, these differ little in terms of content (9) and as a result students arriving at university to study chemistry will have very similar subject backgrounds. Another factor which acts to homogenize the pre-university experiences of UK students is the examination system, which sees youngsters assessed against national standards at periodic intervals between the ages of 7 and 16. Pupil performance data underpins school performance tables (rankings of schools, often referred to as ‘league tables’) which are published by the government (10) for scrutiny by members of the public, and draw attention from local and national media. Schools are also subject to regular inspections by OFSTED (Office for 57 Muzyka and Luker; The Flipped Classroom Volume 2: Results from Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


Standards in Education, Childrens’ Services and Skills), a government body responsible for ensuring a high standard of provision in state maintained schools along with other childcare services (11). The percentages of students achieving high grades in examinations are used by OFSTED inspectors in determining the effectiveness of a school and in judging its standing relative to other institutions. Since schools are accountable for the performance of their students in such a quantitative fashion, there is great pressure on teachers to ensure that examination outcomes are maximized. The importance of high grades in determining the future success of an individual is also a driver for parental pressure and the student behaviours it underpins, pushing teachers to excessively focus lessons towards exam preparation. According to a recent study by Dorling, the UK, along with the US, leads the world in such “teaching to the test (12, 13),” with detrimental long-term impacts on learning and capability. Considering all of the above, it should be no surprise that many UK students arrive at university with a strong focus on grades and the importance of examination performance. As Dorling suggests (13), such an attitude is grounded in a rote-learning mentality and it is clear that this is not conducive to the long-term, meaningful learning required to master a complex discipline like chemistry (14). In order to be able to apply subject knowledge and skills to solve the challenging problems that chemists face daily, students need to develop a confident grasp of the discipline, and for many this requires something of a paradigm shift in their view of their studies and their approach to them, presenting a significant challenge to those responsible for curriculum delivery at university level. The Transition to University-Level Teaching and Learning Beyond the ubiquitous teaching laboratory, lectures remain a cornerstone of the teaching of chemistry at university level in the UK, and are usually supported by problem-solving sessions in the form of small group tutorials (typically 6-10 students) and/or workshops (typically 20-30 students) (15). Lectures have previously been criticised as being outmoded and ineffective due to low levels of interactivity and the limited attention spans of the audience (16). However, it should also be noted that some authors, such as Matheson (17), have suggested that lectures can be effective at supporting learning if interactive elements are incorporated and there are opportunities for students to ask questions and consolidate understanding. This latter point is supported by extensive empirical evidence suggesting that active learning has a positive impact on student performance in comparison with traditional lecturing (18). Whatever the format of a lecture, the pace of delivery and sheer volume of content covered present great challenges to first year students, who may be accustomed to school lessons which were broken up into manageable chunks, with new learning being constantly reinforced by questioning and related activities. Another issue is the significant reduction in feedback provided at university level in comparison to that received at school, as previously reported by Yorke and Longden (19). A reduction in direct teacher support and the accompanying expectation that students will independently make meaning of lecture material during subsequent 58 Muzyka and Luker; The Flipped Classroom Volume 2: Results from Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


private study significantly add to the challenges facing students in making the transition from school-to-university. With the above in mind, it is not surprising that the issue of enhancing learning in lectures was one that was pursued by a number of the School Teacher Fellows mentioned previously (6). From the perspective of the corresponding author as a school teacher observing students in chemistry lectures in the early part of their time at the University of Southampton, it was clear that learning during many lectures was limited. In informal discussions with students, many suggested that their note-taking skills were insufficiently well-developed for them to be confident that they had an accurate record of what had been taught. Moreover, many students reported that lectures felt passive from their perspective and even when they had questions, they lacked the confidence to ask them in a large group setting. On the other hand, students frequently commented that they enjoyed lectures, particularly the fact that they were being taught by people who were renowned leaders in their field, and this chimes with previous suggestions that good lectures do have value in providing motivation and inspiration to those in the audience (20). In order to promote learning in chemistry lectures at Southampton, clickers were used initially in the 2007/8 academic year as a means of introducing interactivity into lectures, and these were well-received by students and academics alike (21). However, one of the problems encountered was a lack of available time during lectures for clicker questions to be posed to students, particularly as there was little appetite for the removal of lecture content. This meant that the delivery of remaining lecture content was often rushed in order to accommodate the use of clickers, and explanations to answers tended to be covered in little detail. This had a detrimental impact on the value of using this technology, bearing in mind the comments of Beatty (22), who suggested that inserting “occasional audience questions into otherwise traditional lectures, to quiz students for comprehension, or to keep them awake” is “a waste of the system’s potential.” Nonetheless, clickers were used by numerous chemistry lecturers at Southampton over the next few years, normally in a manner which was intended to identify gaps in understanding which could then be addressed by rapid feedback. At the time of writing (academic year 2015/16), several academic colleagues in chemistry at Southampton are continuing to use clickers in their lectures, providing evidence of a long-term beneficial impact of the work of a School Teacher Fellow in this particular institution. The work of other School Teacher Fellows placed at UK universities is also pertinent to this discussion. Turner experimented with the use of ‘starter’ activities at the beginning of lectures during her fellowship at the University of Manchester in 2011/12, setting the scene for the new material to be covered and making links to previous learning (23). Such starters are commonly used in school lessons in the UK, but the main problem reported by Turner was the difficulty of engaging 200+ students in such activities in order for them to complete the tasks in a timely fashion without impacting on the delivery of the lecture itself. Smith, who completed her fellowship at the University of Leicester in 2011/12, worked with academic colleagues to trial a number of approaches taken directly from the school classroom, including the use of individual whiteboards onto which students could draw diagrams and write equations before showing them to the 59 Muzyka and Luker; The Flipped Classroom Volume 2: Results from Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


lecturer, and sets of short questions for students to complete throughout the lecture to assist with self-monitoring (24). Smith also shared clear and specific learning objectives (25) at the beginning of lectures so students were clear on what they were learning, and also provided handouts outlining how new material related to previous learning. These approaches were well-received by students, but were not widely adopted by other colleagues for continued use after the completion of the fellowship, in part due to the time required both in terms of contact time and prior preparation of materials. These examples indicate that one of the main impediments to the introduction of approaches aimed at enhancing learning in lectures is the lack of available time due to the pressures of content delivery. One solution would be to move away from the traditional model of lectures, perhaps using a flipped learning approach, as outlined by Bergmann and Sams (26). As the majority of chemistry lectures for students in their 1st year at the University of Southampton have been recorded since 2010 (27), it would be straightforward to repurpose taught modules so that the delivery of lecture content was entirely in the form of videos, releasing scheduled teaching slots for more active modes of delivery, an approach which had already been trialled locally (28). However, this is a challenge at a time when much of the existing teaching infrastructure (e.g. large lecture halls with tiered seating) is geared towards the lecture. Furthermore, when this idea was first proposed, colleagues expressed concern about the time required to develop material for modes of delivery other than the lecture, and many report a lack of confidence in their ability to do so due to their lack of experience in this area. As such, a compromise was sought whereby lectures would remain the primary mode of delivery for taught material, while allowing some time to be freed up in lecture slots by making portions of lectures available to students in video format prior to the scheduled teaching slot. Two different case studies where partial flipping was employed in this manner are outlined in the subsequent discussion. The Rationale for Partial Flipping of Lecture Content If a student’s working memory, i.e. their ability to handle, manipulate, and ultimately store their immediate experiences, is exceeded during a lecture, this will limit or inhibit their learning (29, 30). This so-called high cognitive load is a real concern, especially for students with limited prior-knowledge of the underpinning concepts, and presents a barrier to deep learning during lectures. An approach taken by Seery and Donnelly utilized cognitive load theory to reduce the strain on students’ working memory through the provision of pre-lecture resources (31). This work was informed by that of Sirhan and Reid (32), who reported the benefits of such approaches in reducing the cognitive load of learners during the lecture by providing an introduction to key terms in advance of the timetabled session. Seery and Donnelly’s approach (31) involved the creation of interactive resources in which information was presented using text and diagrams accompanied by a synchronised audio narration. In planning these resources, each lecture was examined to identify terms which would be unfamiliar to students in order that these could be defined and explained in the resource. Each resource included a quiz which was intended to reinforce understanding and boost 60 Muzyka and Luker; The Flipped Classroom Volume 2: Results from Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


confidence, with the marks being reported to the virtual learning environment (VLE) in order that they could make a summative contribution to the module’s assessment. Usage of resources was high, with the key outcome being that students who didn’t have prior knowledge of chemistry quickly caught up with those who had some experience of the subject, which contrasted with the situation observed in previous years. The success of this approach provided inspiration for the design and implementation of a partial flipping approach at the University of Southampton. The combination of pre-lecture resources with interactive in-class activities is consistent with Bergmann & Sams’ model of flipped learning (26) whereby students acquire content knowledge out of class and then undertake activities in which they apply this knowledge during scheduled teaching time. Such an approach is becoming increasingly popular in chemistry and has been successfully applied in all areas of the subject (33). Of particular relevance to the second case study is work done on the application of flipped learning to organic chemistry teaching in separate studies by Christiansen (34) and Flynn (35). Eichler and Peeples have recently reported that the use of the flipped classroom model in the teaching of a general chemistry course genuinely leads an improved grade point average (36), and it is clear that this will be an area of great interest to chemistry educators and education researchers for a long time to come.

Partial Flipping in Practice: Case Studies 1. Supporting the Teaching of a Foundation Year Chemistry Course Outline The foundation year program at the University of Southampton is a one year course, technically a ‘Year 0’, for students who don’t have the appropriate prerequisite qualifications and knowledge for direct entry onto the degree program of their choice. The chemistry module in the foundation year (titled Fundamentals of Chemistry) is taught entirely by the corresponding author of this chapter, and covers similar content to that taught at A-level (broadly equivalent to content covered in General Chemistry I and II in the US). At the time of implementation, the author had been teaching at university for 6 years, with 4 years of prior experience as a teacher at an 11-18 school. The case study took place in the second year that the author had taught on the programme. During the first year of the program’s delivery (2012/13), lectures were delivered using a tablet PC (Dell XT3) displaying PowerPoint slides which were duplicated onto paper and distributed to students as gapped handouts (37). The slides were populated with most of the key text required to get the main learning points across. Some gaps were left in the notes for keywords with the intention that these would be added by students during the lecture. Spaces were also left in the handouts for diagrams, equations, mechanisms etc., which could be added by annotation during the session. By minimizing the amount of writing that students would need to do, it was possible to use every gap as an opportunity to pose a 61 Muzyka and Luker; The Flipped Classroom Volume 2: Results from Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


question or to elicit discussion in a manner inspired by the Socratic Method, as discussed previously in a chemistry context by Heeren (38) and Holme (39). It had been the intention that clickers would be used in the majority of lectures during 2012/13 to test understanding and support learning by facilitating feedback provision. However, the pressures of content delivery meant that there simply wasn’t ample time during lecture slots for clickers to be used, much to the disappointment of the students who found them to be engaging and effective on the small number of occasions that they were deployed. In module evaluations, some students were vocal in requesting more interactivity in lectures, and this provided motivation to seek innovative ways of accommodating this request. There was little scope for reducing the content covered in the chemistry module, bearing in mind that its purpose is to ensure that students who complete the foundation year have comparable levels of knowledge and understanding to those who have studied A-level chemistry, so an alternative approach was required if more interactivity and variety were to be introduced into lectures. All of the 66 lectures had been recorded over the course of 2012/13, providing a total of 60 hours of content. With 36 students in the program, they streamed a total of around 1200 hours, revealing that they used the resources heavily. Additionally, many students commented on the value of these recordings in supporting their independent study. As it had already been seen that students would make extensive use of recorded lectures, it was postulated that a short section of a lecture could be made available to students prior to the timetabled slot in a partial flipping approach, freeing up time for more effective learning activities. This process is illustrated in Figure 1, where an interactive segment is shown at the beginning of a lecture slot. Of course, this could be placed at any point in the timetabled slot, or the interactive elements can be broken down and interspersed amongst the rest of the material being delivered. The key point is that the entire lecture slot is no longer committed to entirely to content delivery, thus allowing the integration of active learning approaches which encourage more effective learning (18).

Figure 1. Freeing up time in a lecture slot by moving some content online 62 Muzyka and Luker; The Flipped Classroom Volume 2: Results from Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


Methodology Since our early work on lecture recording at Southampton in 2009/10 (27), the lecture capure system, Panopto (40) has been adopted at the institution. This was used to capture all of the lectures in the Fundamentals of Chemistry module during the first year of delivery, and the availability of these recordings meant that there was an option to edit these and use them as part of a flipped learning project. However, it was decided that these ‘live’ recordings, with the voices of the previous year’s students clearly audible in their responses to questions and other discussions, were not appropriate for this purpose. Instead, it was decided that pre-lecture videos would be recorded afresh. The typical format for pre-lectures was that the first 3 or 4 slides of a lecture (most lectures had 9-11 slides in total) would be recorded with annotations and narrations, and a gapped handout created for distribution to students. An example of an annotated slide is shown in Figure 2. The structure of the original lectures was such that the first slide or two would relate the content to prior learning, before the introduction of key concepts which would then be built on subsequently. As such, the early slides from any given lecture provided a sound basis for the creation of partially flipped lectures, with some of the characteristics of Seery and Donnelly’s pre-lecture resources (31).

Figure 2. An example of an annotated slide from a partially flipped lecture 63 Muzyka and Luker; The Flipped Classroom Volume 2: Results from Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


In the first instance, the partial flipping approach was applied to one of the three weekly lectures, typically that which took place on Friday morning. The preceding lecture was on Tuesday morning, with partially flipped recordings being made available on Wednesdays in most cases, giving students at least 36 hours in which to watch the flipped recordings prior to the face-to-face session. Students were issued a hardcopy of the gapped handout for the flipped pre-lecture at the end of the Tuesday lecture and were told that it was compulsory to watch the recording and fully annotate the handout. For the first few weeks that the approach was employed, students were asked to bring their annotated handout to the Friday lecture in order to demonstrate that they had completed the work. The Panopto system also logged data regarding the number of views by each student and which parts of recordings were viewed most/least frequently.

Making Use of in-Class Contact Time Freed up by Partial Flipping In most cases, several clicker questions were used at the start of the lecture to test comprehension of material covered during the pre-lecture, to provoke discussion about what was challenging, and to identify which points needed further clarification. This approach had the additional benefit that any students who had not had the chance to watch the pre-lecture would be able to catch up to some extent through discussions with their peers. In a number of lectures, the peer-instruction approach, first proposed in the context of physics teaching by Mazur (41), was used to provide a focus for discussion. This involves a clicker question first being posed to students to answer independently before being posed for a second time, at which point students are able to discuss their answers with peers prior to polling. Crouch and Mazur (42) demonstrated that peer-instruction led to significant learning gains when used with physics students, and the use of this method in chemistry teaching, to capitalize on the use of the flipped classroom, has been reported previously (28). Additionally, the increased availability of time in face-to-face sessions meant that there was more opportunity for students to ask questions orally, and it was also possible to use demonstrations to illustrate chemical phenomena, which had not been possible during the previous year of teaching.

Student Engagement and Evaluation of Impact As mentioned above, the Panopto system provides data regarding student usage of recordings. After the first flipped lecture, students were shown the data for that particular recording, and they also presented their completed lecture handouts. In total, 26 students out of 35 present had watched the recording, and the 9 that had not could clearly see that they were at a disadvantage in comparison to those who had completed the work. Subsequent inspection of viewing statistics for the 21 flipped pre-lectures released during the year showed that > 90% of students 64 Muzyka and Luker; The Flipped Classroom Volume 2: Results from Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


typically viewed these recordings, a considerably higher proportion than those who viewed recordings made of scheduled (i.e. non-flipped) lectures. It should be noted that the evaluation methods employed here (and in the second case study) were approved by the University of Southampton’s Ethics and Research Govenance body (ERGO). Students were surveyed at the end of the 2013/ 14 academic year to probe their use of pre-lecture recordings and their perception of the impact they had on their learning. The survey, which was not validated, was designed to probe the student response to partial flipping in terms of the impact on confidence, and perceived impacts on learning. Seventeen students completed the survey, a response rate of over 50% of the 32 students who took the final exam. Data relating to Likert scale response items is illustrated in Table 1. Key points are the fact that students report increased confidence in a range of different contexts, most notably with regard to answering questions orally in class. Of particular importance, bearing in mind the overarching objectives of this work, is the fact that a large portion of students report increased confidence in studying chemistry independently.

Table 1. Students’ views regarding the value of flipped lectures on the Fundamentals of Chemistry module in 2013/14a

a

SA

A

N

D

SD

The flipped lectures meant I spent more time studying chemistry than I otherwise would have.

6

3

2

5

1

The flipped lectures have increased my confidence when solving problems.

5

5

7

0

0

The flipped lectures have increased my confidence when asking questions in class.

6

4

6

1

0

The flipped lectures have increased my confidence when answering questions (verbal) in class.

10

3

3

1

0

The flipped lectures have increased my confidence when discussing chemical concepts with my peers.

4

6

7

0

0

The flipped lectures have increased my confidence when studying chemistry independently.

6

5

5

0

0

SA = strongly agree; A = agree; N = neutral; D = disagree; SD = strongly disagree

Some insightful qualitative data was also collected through open response questions in the survey, pointing to a number of key benefits from the perspective of the students, which are summarized in Table 2 in the form of extracts from students’ comments. These data indicate that students were able to see the value of the partial flipping approach, and it is particularly gratifying that many of the points made refer to benefits which the educator had hoped to achieve. An additional benefit of analyzing such data is that it supports the implementation of refinements 65 Muzyka and Luker; The Flipped Classroom Volume 2: Results from Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


in future years, and can also be very persuasive in encouraging colleagues to experiment with similar innovations, as evidenced in the second case study. One particularly eloquent student quote sums up the success of this trial, and is included in its entirety below as a compelling piece of evidence that the partial flipping approach used in this case did indeed achieve its objectives. “I have found the flipped lectures implemented into the syllabus to be an incredibly valuable resource over the last several months. “They are an ingenious way to convey the information prior to a main lecture, giving the students relevant background and understanding in order to constructively contribute in class. “Utilising technology for this purpose allows me time to pause, comprehend and think about how the information being conveyed fits into what has been learnt previously."

2. Enhancing the Flip: Adding Interactivity to Pre-Lecture Videos Using Simple Web Software Outline The positive response to the previous case study encouraged other colleagues to consider utilising partial flipping to support their own teaching. In this case study, a research-focussed academic (JW) worked with the corresponding author and a chemistry education research student (TW) to integrate the partial flipping approach into an organic chemistry module. The instructor (JW) was relatively inexperienced in terms of teaching, having only delivered lectures in organic and bioorganic chemistry during the two preceding academic years. These lectures had generally been delivered utilizing a ‘chalk-and-talk’ approach (43), with students annotating gapped handouts and recording additional notes. The instructor was keen to free up time for more interaction with students during the lectures, prompting the adoption of the partial flipping model for the 14/15 academic year. A further motivation was the fact that junior academics in UK universities are encouraged to implement and evaluate innovative approaches as part of the training they undergo at the start of their teaching career. The case study outlined herein formed part of this process, and contributed to the instructor winning a Vice Chancellor’s Teaching Award in 2015. A further innovation was introduced here in that pre-lecture recordings were augmented with interactivity using the web platform Zaption (44), which allowed the placement of multiple choice and open answer questions at appropriate points in the video. These questions were designed to prompt students to think about key aspects of the theory being taught and to provide the educator with valuable learning analytics and information regarding students’ understanding to guide justin-time teaching during timetabled lectures. Additionally, the time freed up by the flipping of content allowed the introduction of activities to enhance learning during the scheduled lectures, including formative assessment tasks based on concepts covered in pre-lectures. 66 Muzyka and Luker; The Flipped Classroom Volume 2: Results from Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.

Table 2. Evidence extracted from student responses to the questions “What are the advantages and disadvantages of using the flipped videos at home as opposed to being taught the material in class?” and “Do you have any other comments on flipped teaching and its effectiveness in helping you to learn?”


Benefit

Evidence extracted from student comments

Reduced cognitive load

“…you arent as overwhelmed as perhaps you would have been without them.” “…its nice to not feel rushed or get information overload during the lecture.” “I can pause (when my brain has an overload moment)…” “[it is better than] having to continue with no hope of comprehending the material as you have not grasped a central concept of the topic…” “It feels good to come into class and starting off by feeling content instead of puzzled.” “…Id had an insight into the topic so felt more comfortable in the lecture.”

Better preparation for scheduled lectures

“I can rewind [and] look up in textbook for deeper understanding and I feel very well prepared...” “It allows you to put in some extra research into points…” “…it gave us chance to be ready and also study further…”

Confidence

“…flipped lectures have changed my confidence regarding clicker questions and intellectually grasping what is going on…”

More time available in lectures

“The availability of time to ask questions is key I think…” “…gave us more time [to] answer and get immediate feedback on questions relating to the topic.” “Using the time freed up in the lectures to do more [clicker] questions was really helpful…” “…has created more time to explain harder content/work through more examples etc.” “…more actual lecture time to learn the harder bits.” “…more time in chemistry lectures to go into more detail or for better explanations.”

Enjoyment

“…this tool is very useful for me and I really enjoy [it]…” “I have loved it, it was a revelation to me and a huge help.” “I really like the idea of teaching via flipped lectures.”

This innovation involved a first semester course in introductory Organic Chemistry which is compulsory for all first year students (~180 in 2014/15). A number of distinct concepts are covered during the course, all of which are underpinned by the concept of electron flow. Although students encounter curly arrows in their pre-university chemistry studies in the UK, our experience is that many lack confidence in using the concept of electron flow to describe and explain mechanistic processes, and often rely instead on rote-memorization (45). A key aim of this module is to provide students with a common foundation of knowledge and skills from which to progress in their future studies, by developing the skills required to derive mechanisms from first principles rather than attempting to rote-learn mechanistic processes. 67 Muzyka and Luker; The Flipped Classroom Volume 2: Results from Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


A Role for Learning Analytics in Enhancing Lecture Delivery and Feedback An educator who is able to interact with their students and collect data regarding what they are (and are not) learning can adjust their teaching style and provide improved feedback to students, as discussed by Toto and Nguyen (46). The principle of Just-in-Time Teaching, as defined by Novak et al. (47), can be supported by the use of learning analytics, helping an educator to adjust their teaching to give more attention to areas in which students demonstrate weaker understanding. The key consideration, of utmost relevance for organic chemistry, is that if students misunderstand important pieces of knowledge or earlier learning outcomes, they may fail to progress in grasping higher-order concepts. The use of learning analytics can help to identify misconceptions and gaps in knowledge which can be immediately addressed before progressing to more advanced material, and this was instrumental in informing the design of the interactive pre-lecture videos. The reduction in the amount of feedback students receive when they progress to university has already been discussed as one of the barriers that hinders a smooth transition to university (19). As such an additional aim of this work was to use learning analytics to enhance the feedback provided to students, and this was achieved in a number of ways as outlined in the implementation section below. Improved feedback can empower students to manage their own thought processes (48) and generate feedback for themselves or their peers (49), while meaningful group discussion and reflection may also be encouraged (50). The preceding points were important in ensuring that students were well-prepared to engage with the in-class activities being introduced as part of this project. Enhanced feedback can also help students to become more aware of their own learning, helping them to develop skills of metacognition (51), and supporting the key objective that this work would assist students in becoming the effective independent learners they need to be in order to succeed at university. In the example outlined in this case study, interactive online pre-lectures were created which were based on existing material and did not require extensive preparation time. Usage data and the responses to Zaption questions posed during pre-lectures formed the basis of the analytics which were collected and analyzed by the instructor to support teaching and learning as outlined below.

Methodology Pre-lecture videos were again prepared using Panopto (40) on a tablet PC. The instructor annotated PowerPoint slides using a stylus to add structures and mechanisms while explaining his actions verbally, as illustrated in Figure 3.

68 Muzyka and Luker; The Flipped Classroom Volume 2: Results from Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


Figure 3. An example of a Zaption pre-lecture video based on annotation of PowerPoint slide. (Zaption images reproduced with permission from reference (44). Copyright 2016 Zaption.)

The videos were uploaded to YouTube for online hosting, after which Zaption (44), a piece of web-based software running in the browser, was used to add interactivity to the videos. Videos augmented with Zaption can be made to pause at any point in order that questions can be posed to the viewer. In these examples, multiple choice questions (MCQs) were used to probe students’ understanding of key concepts, with Zaption providing instant feedback to students on their answers. Open response questions were also employed to gain an understanding of students’ thought processes, while giving them opportunities to reflect on the reasoning behind their responses. This meant students could evaluate and refine their understanding prior to the face-to-face session. In some cases, explanations of answers were included as part of the flipped lecture so as to provide additional feedback. Students’ responses to all questions, along with viewing statistics, were subsequently available for download as .csv files.



Implementation of Zaption Pre-Lecture Videos in Practice The first pre-lecture video that was shared with students introduced the fundamental concepts that govern the strength of organic acids, which came at the beginning of a four-lecture unit on this particular topic. During the video, students were taught the definitions of acids and bases in the context of organic chemistry, and were also shown the convention for drawing acid-base reaction mechanisms using curly arrows. At the end of the video, students were asked three questions. In the first (Figure 4a), they were shown a curly arrow mechanism and asked if it was correct. In the second question (Figure 4b), they were asked to draw a curly arrow mechanism themselves. Since there was no straightforward way for them to input molecular structures and curly arrows into the online platform, the video was automatically paused at this point so students could draw the mechanism. The students then un-paused the video to view the instructor drawing the mechanism so they could check their work. They could then select a response to a multiple choice question which indicated how close they had been to the correct answer.

Figure 4. a and b: examples of questions presented to students during a Zaption pre-lecture. (Zaption images reproduced with permission from reference (44). Copyright 2016 Zaption.)



Finally, to assist them in moving to higher-order thinking, students were asked to consider two molecules, ethanol and acetic acid. These are similar molecules chemically, each containing two carbon atoms, one of which is attached to oxygen, but they have different acid-base properties. The information that ethanol is a weaker acid than acetic acid was provided to the students, and they were then asked to consider why this is the case. Students gave their responses to this prompt, which were then reviewed to inform the preparation of the scheduled lecture, with some correct and incorrect example answers incorporated into lecture slides for review purposes. The overall result was that students received immediate feedback on their grasp of basic concepts and skills (curly arrow mechanism), and also then had some time to consider a deep learning level question on the application of this concept to explain a physical phenomenon with which they are all familiar, i.e. the different properties, including taste, of alcohol and vinegar. This was then followed by further feedback in the scheduled lecture slot, which was particularly timely in view of the fact that most students watched pre-lectures videos in the 24 hours preceding the scheduled lecture. The remaining videos were produced in a similar format, with the rich data collected being analyzed by the instructor prior to each scheduled session. Another approach used was to follow up a multiple choice question (e.g. “Which of these compounds will react fastest?”) with an open response question in which students were invited to explain their answer. This helped to ensure that students were thinking on a deep level rather than simply ticking an answer, and also provided insight regarding whether or not they were using the correct reasoning. The process of skimming through the students’ answers could be completed surprisingly quickly, and it soon became clear whether or not students were on the right track and what the predominant points of confusion were among the cohort. Towards the end of the semester, an unexpected outcome illustrated the value of this approach. During one of the pre-lectures, the students were asked three questions. Almost all of the students got the correct answers to the first and last questions, but very few answered the middle question correctly. This was very surprising, since the question was not expected to be more challenging than the others. Moreover, the most popular answer selected was the most incorrect of the options available, indicating a fundamental misunderstanding of the way electrons are shared within molecules. Having access to these learning analytics allowed the adjustment of teaching to address this fundamental misunderstanding during the scheduled lecture. Without analysis of the data, the misconception would have gone undetected, potentially for some time thereafter, with consequences for understanding of more complex concepts. As well as providing further opportunities for feedback, the scrutiny of analytics also allowed the instructor to moderate the pace of delivery to meet the needs of students, with higher-order concepts only being covered once students had grasped the underpinning material. Additionally, the lecture time freed up by partial flipping also allowed the implementation of in-class self- and peer-assessment activities, and clicker quizzes. These activities were designed to build on concepts covered in the pre-lecture videos, and again were adapted to take account of the misconceptions and misunderstandings uncovered through scrutiny of the learning analytics. 71 Muzyka and Luker; The Flipped Classroom Volume 2: Results from Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


Student Engagement with Flipped Lectures and Zaption Questions Analytics indicated that approximately 50 % of the cohort students made use of the flipped lectures throughout the module, which was perhaps a reflection of the fact that these were short pre-lecture videos which some students evidently felt they were able to miss. This contrasts with case study 1, where engagement was typically > 90%, which is perhaps a result of the smaller class size in that case, meaning that the instructor was better placed to incentivize individuals who may otherwise have attempted to hide in the shadows. Fortunately, the nature of the formative in-class activities meant that students who missed pre-lectures would be able to pick up some of what they missed, even if they didn’t gain as much benefit as their more engaged peers. Interestingly, students who answered all of the open answer questions throughout the sequence tended to provide more detailed responses, marking these out as a more engaged group. Analysis of these students’ responses showed that the quality (in terms of correctness) was variable, indicating that it wasn’t necessarily the highest attaining students who were most engaged. The active approaches employed in-class were evidently well received, with the instructor reporting excellent engagement during scheduled lectures which provided further valuable insight regarding students’ progress.

Enhanced Provision of Feedback As discussed in the introduction, it has been reported previously that one of the impediments to a successful transition to university learning is the reduction in the amount of feedback students receive in comparison to their experience at school (19). The challenges associated with providing such feedback are clear, particularly in the large-class lecture setting, where it is difficult for a single instructor to provide personalized feedback to individual students based on knowledge of their strengths and weaknesses. As described above, the use of interactive pre-lectures of the type outlined above can go some way towards addressing the problem, as students receive instant feedback on their answers to closed-response questions through Zaption, as well as further feedback during the scheduled lecture. It may be the case that such feedback results in more effective metacognitive processes in students, thus helping them to understand what they need to focus on in their private study. This could represent a real breakthrough in terms of supporting students in making a smooth and effective transition from school-to-university, but thorough research would be required to confirm whether or not this is the case. Perhaps the most valuable impact on feedback provision is that fact that data collected regarding student’s responses to Zaption questions (both open and closed) can be viewed by the instructor at any time. As discussed above, the use of such data enabled the pace and structure of individual lectures to be adjusted in a just-in-time manner to suit student needs. Time was explicitly allocated in the 72 Muzyka and Luker; The Flipped Classroom Volume 2: Results from Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


lectures to provide feedback on students’ responses to Zaption questions, and this information was also used to design clicker questions, providing further feedback opportunities to promote increased metacognition. There were also positive impacts on the instructor, who was in effect receiving feedback from students via the mechanisms outlined above. Importantly, having identified common misconceptions by scrutinizing responses to Zaption questions, he was able to directly address these before moving onto more advanced material. On the other hand, where most students had responded correctly to questions, this resulted in a feeling of security about their level of understanding, allowing the instructor to confidently introduce more stretch and challenge where appropriate.

Evaluation Data

As with the first case study, the evaluation data presented is relatively limited, but does provide valuable insight, and has informed research which is currently being undertaken to ascertain the true impacts of partial flipping with interactive pre-lecture videos on student learning and metacognition. There were some positive outcomes which can be reported here, including a 10% increase in the average mark achieved on a mid-term exam. The prior attainment of students in the two cohorts (2013/14 and 2014/15) was broadly similar, and both tests targeted the same material. The module was taught to both cohorts by the same instructor, and the only material change to delivery was the use of the partial flipping approach, accompanied by enhanced interactivity in the scheduled sessions. This provides evidence that the novel approach was indeed beneficial to student learning, although the usual caveats apply when considering such data as evidence of impact. In order to evaluate student perceptions of the value of the partial flipping approach, an in-class clicker survey, which was not validated, was used in the final lecture of the module to investigate students’ usage of the pre-lecture videos, and also their opinions regarding the value of different elements of the teaching and learning associated with the module, as documented in Table 3. It is particularly noteworthy that students were almost as positive in their view of the impact of pre-lectures on their understanding as they were about the lectures themselves. The data relating to the active learning elements introduced into timetabled lectures are a little less positive, but are still indicative of a favorable response. The same clicker survey also probed students’ attitudes regarding the value of the more traditional teaching resources which supported the module, with interesting results. Large numbers of students didn’t use these resources, with 52% reporting that they didn’t do the recommend reading from the textbook and 72% reporting that they didn’t complete any of the problems from the textbook. Surprisingly, 42% of students did not make use of practice worksheets on Blackboard despite the fact that these represented a good opportunity to become familiar with exam-style questions. 73 Muzyka and Luker; The Flipped Classroom Volume 2: Results from Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


Table 3. Students’ views regarding the value of pre-lecture and in-class elements of teaching (n = 110)a

a

VH

H

N

NH

DNU

How helpful were pre-lectures in improving your understanding of material?

37%

43%

9%

1%

10%

How helpful were lectures in improving your understanding of material?

47%

34%

9%

1%

9%

How helpful were clicker questions in improving your understanding of material?

28%

40%

18%

7%

7%

How helpful were in-class peer-assessment tasks in improving your understanding of material?

16%

36%

23%

12%

14%

VH = very helpful; H = helpful; N = neutral; NH = not helpful; DNU = did not use

In addition to this, students were surveyed using a Zaption video containing text response questions which probed how they felt the videos had impacted their practice. Although this provided richer data, the response rate (approximately 40 students) was lower than in the case of the clicker survey. Evidence has been extracted from students’ comments and is linked to the benefits of the approach as inferred from analysis of the data (Table 4). These comments provide evidence that, in some cases at least, students’ perceived improvement in understanding is related to reduced cognitive load during the scheduled lecture, in accordance with Seery and Donnelly’s earlier findings (31). The data also show that students felt that they were better prepared for lectures as a result of the approach, and there is evidence that this provided a structure within which students could study more effectively outside class. If the flipped lecture structure is reducing cognitive load, we might also expect students to feel more comfortable with the amount of material covered in a lecture course. Gratifyingly, in the final course evaluation questionnaire for this module, there was a significant jump in the score for responses to the statement “I was comfortable with the amount of material covered” (3.9/5 in the previous year, rising to 4.3/5 when the flipped structure was introduced), despite the fact that there was actually a small increase in the amount of content covered in the module. This effect may be explained by reduced cognitive load, with students comfortably able to assimilate more information when their minds are suitably prepared prior to scheduled lectures. Overall, this data is very encouraging indeed, seems to point to positive impacts similar to those reported by others such as Eichler and Peeples (36).



Table 4. Evidence extracted from student responses to the questions “What are the advantages and disadvantages of using the flipped videos at home as opposed to being taught the material in class?” and “Do you have any other comments on flipped teaching and its effectiveness in helping you to learn?” Benefit

Evidence extracted from student quotes

Reduced cognitive load

“…undoubtedly aided my understanding of the topics involved.” “It made what was being taught in the lectures easier to understand.” “…I like how I am able to pause when I want and go back on content which I may otherwise miss in the lectures.” “…made me think about the material before the lecture which gave me a greater understanding and allowed me to take more from the lecture.” “…gave me a greater understanding and allowed me to take more from the lecture.”

Better preparation for scheduled lectures

“Really good as I can briefly see whats coming…” “…impacted positively as I was more prepared for the lectures and they provided a good structure for studying the material.” “Meant I had to do work before lectures, but that meant I felt more prepared for the lectures.” “The pre-lectures prepared me for the next lecture and made me think about the material before the lecture…” “Forced me to be more systematic.”

Feedback

“…it was good practice especially the questions when you would give feedback in the lecture.”

Conclusions Both case studies provide evidence that the partial flipping approach has led to beneficial outcomes from the perspectives of students and educators alike. Students have reported that they are better prepared for the face-to-face lecture, and that they are able to get more out of the lecture as a result of their pre-lecture work. Furthermore, some students have indicated that the approach has provided a structure for their independent study, helping them to develop a systematic approach, something which can be difficult when one is first faced with many pages of hastily written notes after attending a lecture as a novice student. This suggests that partial flipping of lecture content can be effective in supporting students who are making the transition from school-to-university, ensuring that they are better prepared for overcoming some of the hurdles that traditionally present themselves to students embarking on study at degree level.



From the staff perspective, partial flipping represents an achievable first step towards a different way of teaching. The approach outlined in the first case study has been used in each academic year since the trial, and this will continue for the foreseeable future. As indicated previously, the positive student response to the initial implementation was enough to persuade a busy, research-focused academic that there was value in testing the approach in their own teaching, with evidently similar favorable outcomes. This has since resulted in more colleagues at Southampton adopting partial flipping for themselves, potentially leading to impactful, long-term changes to practice. The use of Zaption in the second case study adds another dimension in terms of learning analytics which can provide direction for just-in-time teaching in the following lecture, but this admittedly also adds to workload, with scrutiny of data expanding to fill the time available. However, creative approaches to teaching, perhaps involving more staff sharing teaching of modules and thus shedding some of the extra responsibility, may overcome such issues. Furthermore, the provision of enhanced feedback and the discussion permitted by the freeing-up of face-to-face contact time give students some of the support that is missing in comparison with their days at school. Universities need to be dynamic to respond to the changing experiences and expectations that students bring with them, particularly in the face of challenges such as the MOOC. The key asset that universities have is their people, and the accessibility of those people to students. Cramming students into lecture halls and bombarding them with content in a didactic fashion is certainly outmoded in the view of these authors, but that doesn’t mean the lecture is necessarily dead. By adopting innovations such as the flipped classroom, universities can make better use of the that precious face-to-face contact time to ensure that the students get the experience they are seeking and that their learning is maximized. This will be something that will be difficult to replicate in a MOOC, and since most humans are social animals at heart, real personal interactions would seem to be a very important component of an effective education. However, there is no doubt that MOOCs do have a lot to offer, and are a fantastic resource for those who are unable to attend campus-based courses, and as Zaption shows, an interactive online experience can be highly engaging for those who are amenable. It will be interesting to see how this situation evolves over time. Discussion with colleagues at Southampton and elsewhere indicates that there is a general acceptance of the suggestion that active learning is more effective than traditional lecturing (18), but many are unsure how best to incorporate it into their teaching. In particular, many colleagues indicate that they lack the confidence and expertise needed to make the leap to fully flipped teaching, given that this requires wholesale changes to the planning and delivery of taught sessions. A key benefit of the partial flipping model is that it provides a stepping stone which allows those who wish to experiment with alternative methods to do so while keeping one foot firmly in their comfort zone. Ideally this will lead to improved confidence and will help colleagues to develop their expertise in an iterative fashion as they experiment further. Such a process has the potential to engage greater numbers of teaching staff in the implementation of active learning in otherwise traditional lectures. If nothing else, such activities may challenge seasoned practitioners to reflect on their 76 Muzyka and Luker; The Flipped Classroom Volume 2: Results from Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.

practice and think about what they can do to refresh or even reboot their teaching. These will be exciting times for those who are willing to embrace change.

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Partial Flipping To Support Learning in Lectures - ACS Publications

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