Photocatalytic Degradation of Selected s-Triazine Herbicides and

Environ. Sci. Technol. 2001, 35, 398-405

Photocatalytic Degradation of Selected s-Triazine Herbicides and Organophosphorus Insecticides over Aqueous TiO2 Suspensions IOANNIS K. KONSTANTINOU, THEOPHANIS M. SAKELLARIDES, VASILIS A. SAKKAS, AND TRIANTAFYLLOS A. ALBANIS* Department of Chemistry, University of Ioannina, Ioannina 45110, Greece

The photocatalytic degradation of selected s-triazine herbicides and organophosphorus insecticides was carried out in aqueous TiO2 suspensions under simulated solar light. The tested herbicides from the s-triazines group were atrazine, propazine, cyanazine, prometryne, and irgarol. The tested insecticides from the organophosphorus group were ethyl parathion, methyl parathion, ethyl bromophos, methyl bromophos, and diclofenthion. Degradation kinetics followed first-order reaction and has been monitored through gas chromatography. The degradation was fast with half-lives varying from 10.2 to 38.3 min depending on the nature and the structure of compounds. The generated transformation products (TPs) were formed via oxidation, dealkylation, and dechlorination for s-triazines and via oxidation and photohydrolysis for organophosphates. The TPs of irgarol, bromophos, and dichlofenthion were identified using solid-phase extraction (SDB-disks) and GC-MS techniques, and possible degradation routes were proposed showing similar degradation pathways as for other triazines and organophosporus pesticides. This work points out to the necessity of extended knowledge of the successive steps in a solar-assisted detoxification process.

Introduction Since pesticides as s-triazines and organophosphates are widely used for weed and insect control in agricultural crops, their behavior in the environment is vitally important. s-Triazines are used as pre- and postemergence herbicides for the control of annual and perennial grass and annual broad-leaved weeds. The potential for contamination of water and sediment samples is high owing to their physicochemical properties such as water solubility, adsorptivity (Koc), and hydrolysis half-lives (>25 weeks) (1). The herbicide 2-(methylthio)-4-(tert-butylamino)-6-(cyclopropylamino)-striazine (tradename Irgarol 1051) is widely used in antifouling paints as a biocide agent in substitution to the tributyltin (TBT) and copper-based agents. The herbicide is used as an alternative additive in paints in order to reduce primary colonization by algae and growth of seaweeds in boats (2, 3). As a result of its low solubility (7 mg/L) and high hydrophobicity (Kow ) 3.95) was detected in European lake, estuarine, and coastal waters (3-6). * Corresponding author phone: +30 651 98348; fax: +30 651 98795; e-mail: [email protected]. 398

9

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY / VOL. 35, NO. 2, 2001

The organophosphorus insecticides are comprised within the 10 most widely used pesticides all over the world. They are applied in different types of cultivation for the elimination of custaceans, fruit flies, and mosquitoes (7). These compounds are extremely toxic, acting on acetylcholinesterase activity. Residue levels of organophosphorus insecticides have been reported in environmental waters (8, 9). As a result, effective purification methods for eliminating pesticides in natural waters have been in urgent demand. Degradation and purification processes for polluted waters include adsorption on various adsorbents (10-12) and especially on activated carbon (12), microbial action (biodegradation) (13, 14), and chemical oxidation (15). However in each technique there are limitations and disadvantages. Adsorption involves only phase transfer of pollutants without degradation, chemical oxidation is unable to mineralize all organic substances, and in biological treatment the slow reaction rates and the disposal of activated sludge are the drawbacks to be considered (16, 17). The processes involving light have received increasing attention in the last years because they overcame the above disadvantages. Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) based on H2O2/UV, O3/UV, and H2O2/O3/UV combinations employ photolysis of H2O2 and ozone to produce hydroxyl radicals (•OH) that are able to oxidize the pollutants due to their high oxidative capacity (E° ) 2.8 V) (18). Another interesting AOP is the irradiation of semiconductor slurries by UV light in order to generate highly reactive intermediates, especially •OH that initiate a sequence of reactions resulting in partial or total destruction of organic pollutants. Among the semiconductors used (ZnO, TiO2, and CdS), titanium dioxide has been demonstrated to be a very efficient catalyst and especially suitable to work by solar UV light (19). Photoexcitation of semiconductor usually generates an electronhole pair poised respectively at the conduction and valence edges. The components of this activated pair, when transferred across the interface, are capable of reducing and oxidizing a surface-adsorbed organic compound (20, 21). The reaction of this activated pair with the water, and/or with O2, and/or with hydroxy groups at the semiconductor surface produces high oxidant species (•OH radicals, peroxide radicals) which are responsible for a complete oxidative destruction of organic reactants (22, 23). Photocatalytic processes using semiconductor particles as catalysts for water purification receive a major interest, especially the last years because of and their efficiency in the mineralization of the aqueous pollutants in a short time and of the adaptability to specially designed reactor systems (17). The present study deals with the photocatalytic degradation of selected s-triazine herbicides and organophosphorus insecticides in the presence of TiO2 particles (100 mg L-1) and simulated solar light. The objectives were as follows: (i) to determine the main byproducts by using GC-MS techniques in order to propose a degradation pathway and (ii) to evaluate the kinetics of pesticide disappearance. The dependence of the pesticide structure on the degradation rates has been also discussed and new data on the photocatalytic degradation of s-triazine herbicide irgarol and insecticides as bromophos methyl, and dichlofenthion were reported. Atrazine, propazine, and methyl and ethyl parathion were investigated also in other studies (16, 24, 25) and were stated as reference compounds for comparison with the photocatalytic degradation of the other selected pesticides belonging to the same chemical groups under the applied experimental conditions. 10.1021/es001271c CCC: $20.00

 2001 American Chemical Society Published on Web 12/12/2000

TABLE 1. Chemical Structures of Selected Pesticides

Experimental Section Chemicals. The tested compounds in this study atrazine, propazine, cyanazine, prometryne, irgarol (s-triazines herbicides), ethyl parathion, methyl parathion, diclofenthion, ethyl bromophos, and methyl bromophos (organophosphorus insecticides) were residue analysis grade and purchased from Riedel-de Ha¨en (Germany) and used without further purification. The chemical structures of these pesticides are shown in Table 1. Pesticide grade n-hexane, methanol, dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, and acetone were purchased from Pestiscan (Labscan Ltd., Dublin, Ireland). Sodium chloride and sodium sulfate (proanalysis) was from Merck (Darmstadt, Germany). Titanium dioxide (Degussa P25), a known mixture of 65% anatase and 35% rutile form with an average particle size of 30 nm, nonporous with a reactive surface area (BET) of 50 ( 15 m2 g-1 was used as received for all degradation experiments. HA 0.45 µm filters were supplied from Millipore (Bedford, USA). SDB (styrene divinylbenzene) extraction disks (47 mm) were purchased from Empore (St. Paul, USA), and a conventional filtration apparatus was purchased from Supelco (Bellefonte, USA). Irradiation Procedure. Irradiation experiments of striazines were carried out on stirred air-equilibrated solutions contained in 4 cm diameter cylindrical Pyrex glass cells. Substrates were dissolved in distilled water at ppm (mg L-1) levels, under their solubility levels by putting the appropriate volume of a stock solution in methanol, to have a methanol content 340 nm. Sanlaville and co-workers (35) also reported full decomposition of s-triazines within 30 min using Suntest apparatus (λ > 290 nm). Comparison of Photocatalytic Oxidation Constants. It is well established that conduction band electrons (e-) and valence band holes (h+) are generated when aqueous TiO2 suspension is irradiated with light energy greater than its band gap energy (e.g. 3.2 eV). The photogenerated electrons could reduce the organic substrate or react with the adsorbed molecular O2 on the Ti(III)-surface, reducing it to superoxide radical anion O2•-. The photogenerated holes can also oxidize either the organic molecules directly or the OH- ions and the H2O molecules adsorbed at the TiO2 surface to •OH• radicals. Together with other highly oxidant species (peroxide radicals) they are reported to be responsible for the heterogeneous TiO2 photodecomposition of organic substrates. According to this, the relevant reactions at the semiconductor surface can be expressed as follows:

TiO2 + hν f e- + h+ -

(4)

•-

(O2)ads.+ e f (O2 )ads.

(5)

Ti(IV)-OH + h+ f Ti(IV)-OH•

(6)

+

Ti(IV)-H2O + h f Ti(IV)-OH + H R + h+ f R (oxidized) •

R + OH f products f ...

+

(7) (8) (9)

10-2

The photocatalytic oxidation rate constants depends on the structure of the tested pesticides mainly in the early part of the irradiation experiments, up to 20 min. The reaction types of the hydroxy radical with organic compounds include only two of significant importance: electron or hydrogen atom abstraction and addition to double bonds (36). In the case of s-triazines different initial rates were observed but for prometryne, atrazine, and propazine similar degrees of degradation were reached finally. This fact demonstrates that the initial rate, although useful, can be misleading when used as the only piece of information to estimate the efficiencies of the photocatalytic degradation of a series of pollutants. The above result could be explained comparing the alkyl substituents in the lateral chains and the substituent in the position two of the aromatic ring. The first reaction which takes place is the oxidation of the lateral chains, and the main degradation products were the acetamido and dealkylated derivatives which is consistent to what is reported elsewhere (24, 35). The followed reactions were the photohydrolysis of the substituent in the position two and the final displacement of the amino with hydroxy groups (16). The rate constants for the 2-chloro s-triazines increases in the order propazine> atrazine > cyanazine. This order was reasonable considering that the hydrogen abstraction by the produced OH. radicals was the low step of the reaction followed by the very fast reaction with O2 through the formation of peroxy radicals as reported elsewhere (37). In other previously investigated photocatalytic processes the crucial importance of O2 was assessed (16). Although OH. radicals are very unselective, in practice there is some discrimination among potential sites of attack (36). The lower ionization potential of the amine at position 4 compared with the amine at position 6 might explain the above observation (37). Considering the stability of the different possible N-ethyl and N-isopropyl radicals that could take part in the reaction, this explanation can also be supported. Similar results were observed comparing the two methylthio s-triazines (prometryne > irgarol). When comparing the methylthio triazines with the chloro-triazines (i.e. propazine and prometryne) the rate of photoreactions was affected by the electronegativity of the substituent at position 2 which interferes through the aromatic ring with the stability VOL. 35, NO. 2, 2001 / ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

9

401

FIGURE 3. Proposed photodegradation pathway of irgarol in aqueous TiO2 suspensions under simulated solar light. of substituents at position 4 and 6 (37). The decrease of the reaction rate in the order -Cl > -SCH3 could be explained by the two-step mechanism of -SCH3 oxidation according to the reaction scheme (Figure 3) discussed below. Photocatalytic oxidation rate constant comparison of organophosphorus insecticides (Table 3) indicates that the compounds with the ethoxy group degraded faster than compounds possessing methoxy groups. This observation is also supported considering the stability of the different possible dialkyl-phosphate radicals that were formed during the reaction. Alkyl groups have an inductive effect to release electrons. The effect overlaps with the pπ-dπ contribution of lone pair electrons on the oxygen of the ester group and is increased in the following order: methyl < ethyl (38). Thus, half-lives of ethoxy compounds (ethyl parathion, ethyl bromophos) were found 15.2 and 10.2 min instead of 20 and 35 min for the methoxy analogues (methyl parathion, ethyl parathion), respectively. Irgarol Photodegradation Pathway. Based on the previous observations on the reaction behavior of thioethers in the presence of TiO2 and UV irradiation (39), the photogenerated hole localized at the surface of the irradiated semiconductor is trapped by an adsorbed organosulfur compound, generating an adsorbed cation radical. This localization of positive charge at sulfur would be expected either in the transition state, leading to the initial oxygen adduct, or by Bronsted or Lewis acid complexation, respectively, with acidic or Ti4+ sites on the metal oxide surface. Based on the above consideration the analogue mechanism for the oxidation of irgarol -SCH3 group is proposed in Figure 4. The reaction scheme displayed in Figure 3 is proposed for irgarol (compound 1) photocatalytic oxidation. The mass spectra of some irgarol photoproducts appeared here for the first time, and their spectral characteristics and retention times are given in Table 4. According to the above scheme the degradation in the early steps is progressed through competitive reactions such as oxidation of the side alkyl chains and oxidation of irgarol’s sulfur atom by •OH and O2 or superoxide attack. Some of the primary products formed during photocatalysis were the sulfone (compound 3) and sulfoxide (compound 2) derivatives (Figure 3). Further reaction implies the cleavage of the sulfur group from the 402

9

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY / VOL. 35, NO. 2, 2001

FIGURE 4. Proposed reaction scheme for the photooxidation of thiomethyl group of irgarol in aqueous solutions by TiO2 and simulated solar light, describing the formation of transformation products 2 and 3 in the proposed photodegradation pathway of irgarol (Figure 3). triazine ring resulting in the formation of compound 4 and the hydroxylated compound 5. This is in agreement with mechanisms proposed by other groups for another methylthio triazine such as prometryne (40, 15). The second possible route is the oxidation of the alkylic side chains attached to the nitrogen atoms in position 4 and 6 leading to the formation of the dealkylated derivatives (compounds 6-10). The mechanism of degradation from compound 8 to 9 suggests the possible participation of peroxide radicals. The radical formed by hydrogen abstraction from a methyl group of the tert-butyl chain could be expected to react with the dissolved oxygen to yield peroxide radicals which after decarboxylation produce the dealkylated analogue (41). Although that quantitative determination of byproducts was not realized because of unavailable standards, the higher relative abundance of compounds 7-9 compared to the other identified compounds revealed that the last process was the main pathway and occur approximately for 90% of photodegradation. This observation is in accordance with results referred to the photocatalytic degradation of 2-Cl-triazines proposed by other researchers (16, 24, 35). Further oxidation leads to the formation of hydroxy and dealkylated derivative as ammeline (compound 11) which is an identified photoproduct in photocatalysis of all s-triazine herbicides. Dichlofenthion and Bromophos Photodegradation Pathway. Oxidant attack of the •OH on the PdS bond occurred first in the case of dichlofenthion and bromophos, resulting

TABLE 4. GC-MS-EI Retention Times (Rt) and Spectral Characteristics of Irgarol Major Photoproducts herbicide-photoproducts

Rt (min)

EI-MS spectrum (m/z) ions

(1)a Irgarol 1051 (2-methylthio-4-terbutylamino-6-cyclopropylamino-s-triazine) (2) 2-methylsulfinyl-4-terbutylamino-6-cyclopropamino-s-triazine (3) 2-methylsulfonyl-4-terbutylamino-6-cyclopropamino-s-triazine (4) 4-terbutylamino-6-cyclopropylamino-s-triazine (5) 2-hydroxy-4-terbutylamino-6-cyclopropylamino-s-triazine (6) 2-methylthio-4-amino-6-(ethylamino)-s-triazine (7) 2-methylthio-4-amino-6-cyclopropylamino-s-triazine (8) 2-methylthio-4-terbutylamino-6-amino-s-triazine (9) 2-methylthio-4-isopropylamino-6-amino-s-triazine (10) methylthiodiamino-s-triazine (11) diaminohydroxy-s-triazine

36.84 41.09 42.69 26.36 29.71 36.27 32.61 30.24 34.28 26.83 13.03

253 (M+), 238, 196, 182, 109, 83, 56 269 (M+), 254, 213, 198, 157, 129, 73 286 (M+), 253, 238, 196, 159, 182, 111, 83 207 (M+), 192, 150, 136, 123, 96, 83, 56 223 (M+), 209, 194, 179, 112, 91, 69 241 (M+), 226, 213, 198, 185, 157, 111, 83, 68 197 (M+), 182, 127, 109, 83, 68 213 (M+), 198, 157, 149, 111, 99, 83, 68 199 (M+), 157, 111, 68 157 (M+), 111, 69, 68 128 (M+), 97, 83, 69, 55

a

Corresponding number in the proposed pathway of Figure 3.

TABLE 5. Identified Photoproducts in Dichlofention and Ethyl Bromophos Photocatalytic Degradation and Their Main Fragments Determined by GC-MS in the EI Mode insecticide-photoproducts

Rt (min)

EI-MS spectrum (m/z) ions

methyl bromophos (2) methyl bromooxon (3) 4-bromo-2,5-dichlorophenol (4) O,O,O-trimethyl phosphorothioate (5) 3-chlorophenol (1)a dichlofenthion (2) dichlofenoxon (3) 2,4-dichlorophenol (4) O,O-diethyl O-p-chlorophenyl phosphorothioate (5) 4-chlorophenol (6) S-ethyl dichlofenthion O,O,O-triethyl phosphorothioate diethyl dithiophosphate O,O-diethyl O-methyl phosphate O,O-diethyl O-methyl phosphorothioate diethyl acid phosphite

34.72 32.78 20.49 9.22 10.70 30.88 29.10 12.40 30.68 10.20 33.91 15.65 17.53 14.71 14.00 6.36

333, 331, 329, 125, 109, 97, 93, 79 348 (M+), 350, 352, 315, 313, 242, 240, 109, 96, 79 242, 240 (M+), 135, 133, 99, 97, 96, 81, 79, 73 156 (M+), 126, 125, 109, 93 130, 128 (M+), 100, 99, 92, 75, 65 314 (M+), 281, 279, 253, 251, 225, 223, 164, 162, 125, 109, 97, 88 298 (M+), 265, 263, 237, 235, 209, 207, 164, 162, 127, 109, 99, 81 164, 162 (M+), 126, 100, 99, 98, 63 281 (M+), 279, 253, 251, 225, 223, 164, 162, 133, 125, 109, 97, 88 130, 128 (M+), 100, 99, 93, 92, 65, 314 (M+), 281, 279, 253, 251, 225, 223, 164, 162, 125, 109, 97 198 (M+), 170, 153, 142,138, 125, 111, 110, 109, 97 186 (M+), 158, 153, 142, 125, 121, 109, 97 168 (M+), 140, 138, 123, 110, 109, 91, 81 184 (M+), 156, 140, 128, 124, 111, 98, 95, 79 138 (M+), 111, 110, 109, 93, 83, 65

(1)a

a

Corresponding number in the proposed pathway of Figures 5 and 6.

FIGURE 5. Proposed photodegradation pathway of dichlofenthion in aqueous solutions by TiO2 and simulated solar light. the formation of oxon derivatives (bromoxon and dichlofenoxon) which are also characteristic primary products formed during the photocatalytic degradation of other organophosphorus insecticides (42). The continuous attack of •OH followed by the rupture of P-O bond resulted in the formation of the corresponding phenol and dialkyl-phosphates (43). The photoproducts together with their retention times and spectral characteristics are given in Table 5.

According to this structure identification the proposed reaction pathways for dichlofenthion and bromophos methyl are shown in Figures 5 and 6, respectively. For dichlofenthion compound 6 was identified as its S-ethyl isomer dichlofenthion. Its spectrum (6) has common features with that of dichlofenthion with slightly stronger M+ intensity, more abundant m/z ) 125 fragment ion, and weaker intensities in the rest common ions (44). Especially VOL. 35, NO. 2, 2001 / ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

9

403

matograms of irgarol, dichlofenthion, and bromophos methyl. This material is available free of charge via the Internet at http://pubs.acs.org.

Literature Cited

FIGURE 6. Proposed photodegradation pathway of bromophos methyl in aqueous solutions by TiO2 and simulated solar light. the fragment ion m/z ) 109 has distinguishable lower intensity at S-ethyl dichlofenthion spectrum than its parent compound spectrum. This observation reported elsewhere on the explanation of mass spectrum of isomeric compound O,S-diethyl-phenyl phosphorothioate (45). Finally the S-ethyl isomer of dichlofenthion exhibits longer retention time than dichlofenthion (46). Measurable amounts of different trialkyl and dialkyl phosphorothioate or phosphate esters were formed. The characteristic mass spectra data of these products are listed in Table 5 and were well established in previous reported studies of organophosphorus insecticides photodegradation. The photolytic conversion of ethyl parathion into similar structured triethyl phosphorothioates upon solution irradiation with UV-light has been reported also elsewhere (47). In conclusion, effective destruction of the selected pesticides, present at ppm level in water or wastewater, is possible by photocatalysis in the presence of TiO2 suspensions. The potential of using sunlight as energy source in the photocatalytic process is particularly relevant for Mediterranean agricultural areas, where solar irradiation is highly available making this process quite attractive. The great number of compounds detected during the degradation of the above compounds shows the complexity of the photocatalytic process and suggests the existence of various degradation routes resulting in complex and interconnected pathways. Cost-effective treatments to complete compound mineralization are usually not practicable, and the presence of byproducts during and at the end of the water treatment appears to be unavoidable (48). Therefore, byproduct evaluation is the key to optimize each treatment and to maximize the overall process. The identification of possible formation of highly toxic compounds (as the oxon derivatives for the organophosphorus insecticides) even at low concentrations is essential for the assessment of treated water. Furthermore, the evaluation of the pesticide degradation degree achieved after treatment is necessary. However, most of the studies on the photocatalytic degradation of pesticides relies only on the evaluation of the disappearance of the initial pollutant combined with monitoring total organic carbon (TOC) plus inorganic ions (Cl-, NH4+, SO42- etc). Obviously this is not useful in the case of real waters or when commercial pesticide formulations are treated as a consequence of the presence of other sources of ions and organic compounds.

Supporting Information Available Figures of GC-MS-EI spectra of irgarol, dichlofenthion, and bromophos methyl photoproducts and GC-MS-EI chro404

9

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY / VOL. 35, NO. 2, 2001

(1) Durand, G.; Barcelo, D. J. Chromatogr. 1990, 502, 275-286. (2) Ferrer, I.; Barcelo, D. J. Chromatogr. 1999, 854, 197-206. (3) Readman, J. W.; Wee Kwong, L. L.; Grondin, D.; Bartocci, J.; Villeneuve, J. P.; Mee, L. D. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1993, 27, 1940-1942. (4) Tolosa, I.; Readman, J. W.; Blaevoet, A.; Ghilini, S.; Batrocci, J.; Horvat, M. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 1996, 32, 335-341. (5) Scarlett, A.; Donkin, P.; Fileman, T. W.; Morris, R. J. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 1999, 38, 687-691. (6) Toth, S.; Becker-van Slooten, K.; Spack, L.; de Alencastro, L. F.; Tarradellas, J. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 1996, 57, 426433. (7) Lacorte, S.; Jeanty, G.; Marty, J. L.; Barcelo D. J. Chromatogr. 1997, 777, 99-114. (8) Durand, G.; De Bertrand, N.; Barcelo, D. J. Chromatogr. 1991, 554, 233-250. (9) Albanis, T. A.; Hela, D. G.; Sakellarides, T. M.; Konstantinou, I. K. J. Chromatogr. 1998, 823, 59-71. (10) Pollard, S. J. T.; Fowler, G. D.; Sollars, C. J.; Perry, R. Sci. Total Environ. 1992, 116, 31-52. (11) Banerjee, K.; Cheremisinoff, P. N.; Cheng, S. L. Environ. Sci. Technol., 1995, 29, 2243-2251. (12) O’Brien, G. J. Water Environ. Res. 1992, 64, 877-883. (13) Somich, C. J.; Muldoon, M. T.; Kearney, P. C. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1990, 24, 745-749. (14) Nyholm, N.; Jakobsen, B. N.; Pedersen, B. M.; Poulsen, O.; Damborg, A.; Schulz, B. Water Res. 1992, 26, 339-353. (15) Mascolo, G.; Lopez, A.; Foldenyi, R.; Passino, R.; Tiravanti, G. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1995, 29, 2987-2991. (16) Pelizzetti, E.; Maurino, V.; Minero, C.; Carlin, V.; Pramauro, E.; Zerbinati, O.; Tosato, M. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1990, 24, 15591565. (17) Wang, K. H.; Hsieh, Y. H.; Chou, M. Y.; Chang, C. Y.; Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 1999, 21, 1-8. (18) Zwiener, C.; Weil, L.; Niessner, R. Intern. J. Anal. Chem. 1995, 58, 247-264. (19) Pelizzetti, E. Solar Ener. Mater. Solar Cells 1995, 38, 453-461. (20) Pelizzetti, E.; Pramauro, E.; Minero, C.; Serpone, N.; Borgarello, E. In Photocatalysis and Environment-Trends and applications; NATO ASI Series, Schiavello, M., Eds.; Kluwer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 1988; pp 469-497. (21) Ollis, D. F.; Pelizzetti, E.; Serpone, N. In Photocatalysis: Fundamental and Applications; Serpone, N., Pelizzetti, E., Eds.; Wiley: New York, 1989; pp 603-637. (22) Turchi, C. S.; Ollis, D. F. J. Catalysis 1989, 119, 483-496. (23) Childs, L. P.; Ollis, D. F. J. Catalysis 1980, 66, 383-390. (24) Pelizzetti, E.; Carlin, V.; Minero, C.; Pramauro E.; Vinceti M. Sci. Total Environ. 1992, 123/124, 161-169. (25) Chen, T. F.; Doong, R.; Lei, W. G. Water Sci. Technol. 1998, 37, 187-194. (26) Sanz-Asensio, J.; Plaza-Medina, M.; Martinez-Soria, M. T.; PerezClavijo, M. J. Chromatogr. A 1999, 840, 235-247. (27) Penuela, G. A.; Barcelo D. TrAC Trends Anal. Chem. 1999, 840, 235-247. (28) Lacorte, S.; Molina, C.; Barcelo, D. Anal. Chim. Acta 1993, 281, 71-84. (29) D’Oliveira, J. C.; Al-Sayyed, G.; Pichat, P. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1990, 4, 990-996. (30) Ollis, D. F.; Hsiao, C. Y.; Budiman, L.; Lee, C. L. J. Catalysis 1984, 88, 89-96. (31) Okamoto, K. I.; Yamamoto, Y.; Tanaka, H.; Itaya, A. Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn. 1985, 58, 2023-2028. (32) Al-Ekabi, H.; Serpone, N. J. Phys. Chem. 1988, 92, 5726-5731. (33) Topalov, A.; Molnar-Gabor, D.; Csanadi, J. Water Res. 1999, 33, 1371-1376. (34) Moza, P. N.; Hustert, K.; Pal, S.; Sukul, P. Chemosphere 1992, 11, 1675-1682. (35) Sanlaville, Y.; Guittonneau, S.; Mansour, M.; Feicht, E. A.; Meallier, P.; Kettrup, A. Chemosphere 1996, 33, 353-362. (36) Larson, R. A.; Weber, E. J. Reaction mechanisms in environmental organic chemistry; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, 1994; pp 217261. (37) Rejto, M.; Saltzman, S.; Acher, A. J.; Muskat, L. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1983, 31, 138-143. (38) Eto, M. Organophosporus pesticides: Organic and biological chemistry; CRC Press: Cleveland, U.S.A., 1974; p 63.

(39) Fox, M. A.; Abdel-Wahad, A. A. Tetrahedron Lett. 1990, 31, 45334536. (40) Borio, O.; Gawlik, B. M.; Bellobono, I. R.; Muntau, H. Chemosphere 1998, 37, 975-989. (41) Pelizzetti, E.; Minero, C.; Carlin, V.; Vincenti M.; Pramauro, E.; Dolci, M. Chemosphere 1992, 24, 891-910. (42) Kerthentsev, M.; Guillard, C.; Hermann, J. M.; Pichat P. Catalysis Today 1996, 27, 215-220. (43) Pignatello, J. J.; Sun, Y. Water Res. 1995, 29, 1837-1844. (44) Wilkins, J. P. G. Pest. Sci. 1990, 29, 163-181. (45) Desmarchelier, J. M.; Wustner, D. A.; Fukuto T. R. Residue Rev. 1976, 63, 77-185.

(46) Durand, G.; Mansour, M.; Barcelo, D. Anal. Chim. Acta 1992, 262, 167-178. (47) Chukwudebe, A.; March, R. B.; Othman, M.; Fukuto, T. R. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1989, 37, 539-545. (48) Herrmann, J. M.; Guillard, C.; Arguello, M.; Aguera, A.; Tejedor, A.; Piedra, L.; Fernadez-Alba, A. Catalysis Today 1999, 54, 353367.

Received for review May 16, 2000. Revised manuscript received September 11, 2000. Accepted October 24, 2000. ES001271C

VOL. 35, NO. 2, 2001 / ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

9

405