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Priority Addressment Protocol: Understanding the Ability and Potential of Sanitation Systems to Address Priorities Allie Davis, Amy N. Javernick-Will, and Sherri Michelle Cook Environ. Sci. Technol., Just Accepted Manuscript • DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b04761 • Publication Date (Web): 29 Nov 2018 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on December 3, 2018

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Environmental Science & Technology

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Priority Addressment Protocol:

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Understanding the Ability and Potential of

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Sanitation Systems to Address Priorities

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Allie Davis,1 Amy Javernick-Will,1 Sherri M. Cook1*

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*Corresponding author email: [email protected]

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1Department

of Civil, Environmental, and Architectural Engineering, University of Colorado

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Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309 Table of Contents Art

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Keywords: Resource-limited communities, priority assessment, sanitation failure, resource

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recovery

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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Abstract Sanitation acceptance is unlikely if user priorities are not addressed. However, sanitation

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systems are commonly implemented, especially in resource-limited communities, without

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incorporating local context. Understanding sanitation systems’ abilities to address different

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priorities will further inform technology selection processes. Therefore, a protocol was created

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to identify priorities and measure how well sanitation systems address them, based upon their

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importance to a community. This protocol was applied to 20 community-based sanitation

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systems in India. Overall, 52 sanitation and 40 community priorities were identified; most,

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along with their relative importance, were case-specific and not yet identified in literature.

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Existing sanitation systems poorly addressed priorities. Nonfunctional systems addressed the

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fewest, but, if use and maintenance were improved, they had the potential to address priorities

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almost as well as functional systems. Resource recovery systems addressed the most priorities,

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but there was usually minimal benefit to adding all three resources to an existing system; biogas

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and water had greater potential to address more priorities than compost. This priority

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addressment protocol can help identify the most appropriate technologies and strategies to

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improve technology development and success.


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Introduction The United Nations’ Sustainable Development Agenda encourages an increased focus

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on sanitation;1 however, sanitation still receives little attention from many governments and

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foreign assistance programs, and 60% of the global population lacks access to functional or

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adequate sanitation.2 Access is limited by many factors, especially high failure rates; 70% of

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sanitation systems fail within two years.3 This issue is most common in resource-limited

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communities where sanitation use and acceptance is less likely to occur if user priorities are

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not addressed.4,5

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Therefore, identifying priorities can improve success6–8 and provide a strategy to

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increase universal sanitation access. However, sanitation systems are commonly implemented

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in resource-limited communities without incorporating local context, usually because

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implementers lack the resources or expertise to effectively assess priorities.9 When priorities

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can be assessed, demand-responsive assessments are recommended but are resource-

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intensive.10 So, implementers tend to use supply-driven11 or limited12 assessments, which

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commonly result in insufficient data. In addition, it is recognized that culture influences

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priorities,9 but it is unclear to what extent communities with similar cultures share values.

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Also, most assessments focus on community-level needs,13 but it is unknown if priority

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assessments should be context-specific or if overall community priorities can be translated to

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different projects, such as sanitation or energy. Finally, the relative importance of identified

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priorities is usually not assessed,14 but because not all priorities may be addressable, especially

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when resources are limited, processes to identify a community’s most important priorities can


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focus implementation efforts. Overall, there is a need to evaluate the usefulness of different

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types of priorities and focus on important priorities to maximize data quality while minimizing

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data collection requirements.

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Further complicating the issue of failure, the ability of sanitation technologies to

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address priorities is not well known. In most sanitation monitoring efforts, implementers

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evaluate outcomes (e.g., functionality,15 health16), usually without direct comparisons to

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communities’ priorities. Finally, there is a growing effort to measure the social sustainability

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of sanitation. Other research has proposed social indicators such as “acceptance”17,18 and

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“appropriateness to local context”,19–21 but many of these indicators lack consensus, empirical

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validation, or clear measurement methods. Technology selection and monitoring processes

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could be better informed if implementers could analyze and quantify how well existing

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systems, and potential new sanitation technologies, address priorities. For example, sanitation

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systems that recover energy, water, or nutrients from wastewater (i.e., resource recovery

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systems) have been introduced as an option to increase priority addressment.22 Some studies

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have analyzed potential benefits from resource recovery, such as by evaluating the ability of

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these technologies to meet Sustainable Development Goals at a large-scale23 or to offset

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costs,24,25 but most do not evaluate potential benefits within the context of a community’s goals

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and priorities. Also, given culture-specific, and possibly case-specific, priorities and given the

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many types of resource recovery technologies available, it can also be important to evaluate

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which resources (e.g., biogas) can address the most priorities.


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Therefore, this research created a “priority addressment protocol” that identifies

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priorities and measures how well sanitation systems address them, based upon their

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importance to each community (Figure 1). This protocol was applied in 20 resource-limited

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communities (i.e., cases) in India with community-based sanitation systems to: (1) identify

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sanitation and community priorities; (2) evaluate the ability of existing sanitation systems to

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address priorities; and (3) analyze the potential of different conventional and resource recovery

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technologies to improve priority addressment. The results and new protocol can help identify

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the most appropriate sanitation systems and design improvements that can encourage greater

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sanitation acceptance, use, and success.


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Figure 1. Overview of the priority addressment protocol used to identify priorities and evaluate the current ability and potential of different sanitation systems to address priorities. Purple indicates priority identification, blue indicates priority ranking, and green indicates priority addressment.


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Methods Case Descriptions & Priority Identification Twenty peri-urban, low-income, slum resettlement cases in southern India were

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selected (Table S1), detailed in Davis et al.26 Cases were resettled by government agencies to

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peri-urban areas to improve living conditions for India’s lowest caste, but these resettlements

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still often lacked important infrastructure such as water or electricity. Each case had one

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centralized sanitation system. The systems served 800 to 1000 users, were implemented by

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external organizations, and were maintained by communities. Cases were selected to ensure

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comparable demographics, size, geography, and income but different sanitation technologies

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and functional statuses (Table S1). Priority identification used three qualitative data collection

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methods: interviews, focus groups, and photovoice. In photovoice, participants are usually

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given one to three days to take pictures in response to a prompt. In this research, participants

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had 24 hours to photograph their sanitation and community priorities; they then described the

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photos in a follow-up interview.27 Data collection aimed to capture a representative cross-

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section of case perspectives (balanced gender, age, and geographic representation and multiple

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community roles) and used door-to-door sampling in the morning, midday, and evening to

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include a range of lifestyles (e.g., employed and unemployed individuals).26 Data collection

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concluded when theoretical saturation was achieved (i.e., when no additional priorities were

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identified by subsequent participants) for each case. In total, 232 interviews, 171 photovoice

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follow-up interviews, and 20 focus groups (with 189 focus group participants) were completed

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across all 20 cases. Data was coded inductively28 (see Tables S2 and S3 for coding dictionaries)

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and triangulated between the three methods to identify one unordered list of sanitation


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priorities and one unordered list of community priorities per case. Priorities were then ranked

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using the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) in each case by an additional focus group (called

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the AHP group). Each priority was assigned an AHP weight, which represents a priority’s

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relative importance (a case’s sanitation AHP weights sum to one). These methods are detailed

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in Davis et al.,26 and all data collection followed protocol #16-0026 (approved by University of

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Colorado Boulder IRB in January 2016).

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Priority Addressment A priority addressment protocol was created to quantify the current ability and the

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potential of different sanitation systems to address priorities (Figure 1) and was evaluated in

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three scenarios (Table 1). The first, called the Current Scenario, evaluated how well a case’s

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existing sanitation system—under existing use, maintenance, and performance conditions—

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addressed their sanitation and community priorities. The second, a hypothetical scenario

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called the Intended Design Scenario, evaluated how well an existing sanitation system would

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address priorities if the system was functional. The third, also a hypothetical scenario, called

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the Added Resource Recovery Scenario, evaluated how well a sanitation system with resource

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recovery would address priorities if the system was functional and designed to recover biogas,

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water, and compost.

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Table 1. Description of Current, Intended Design, and Added Resource Recovery Scenarios. Scenario

Technology Type

Current

Existing

Intended Design

Existing

System Status Functional or nonfunctional (based on existing system and current use, operation, and maintenance) Functional; made hypothetical changes to existing system (from Current Scenario) such that it became functional


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Added Resource Recovery

Resource Recovery; made hypothetical changes to existing system such that it had full resource recovery (biogas, water, compost) capability

Functional; made hypothetical changes to existing system (from Current Scenario) such that it became functional

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In the Current Scenario, there were five functional conventional, five nonfunctional

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conventional, five functional resource recovery, and five nonfunctional resource recovery

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systems (Table S1). Functional status was defined using three criteria: the sanitation system

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was (1) compliant with local regulations29 for pH and chemical and biochemical oxygen

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demands, determined from effluent water quality tests; (2) adequately maintained, determined

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by triangulating data from observations, documentation (e.g., maintenance manuals), and

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system manager interviews; and (3) used continuously by more than 75% of the intended

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population, determined by triangulating data from observations, documentation (e.g.,

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monitoring reports), and community member and system manager interviews; 75% was

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selected because health benefits increase significantly when the majority of a case’s population

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is using toilets30,31 and all cases with regulatory-compliant systems had greater than 75% use

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(Figure S1).

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Priority addressment data was collected using interviews, technical evaluations, and

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observations. An average of six interviews, with community members and system managers,

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were conducted per case (Table S4), focusing on how often the community typically

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experienced problems with each priority. Technical evaluations assessed the sanitation

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system’s construction quality, effluent water quality, odor, and cleanliness. Researchers

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observed system use and maintenance along with community life, such as status of roads and


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housing; on average, seven hours of observations were completed per case. Interview

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transcripts and observation notes were deductively coded31 for design features and ongoing

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problems by two independent coders. Based on this information, each priority was assigned an

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“addressed value” to characterize the ability of the sanitation system to either always (1),

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usually (0.67), occasionally (0.33), or never (0) address that priority (Figure 1).

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In the Intended Design Scenario, each addressed value was re-evaluated based on this

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scenario’s hypothetical changes (Table 1) and the priority (Tables S5 and S7). In summary, an

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addressed value: (i) remained or increased to always addressed (i.e., 1.0) for priorities that could

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be completely addressed if the existing sanitation system was functional (e.g., Toilet

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Cleanliness); (ii) increased by one addressment level (e.g., from occasionally, 0.33, to usually,

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0.67, addressed) for priorities that could be partially addressed by sanitation but may also be

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influenced by other non-sanitation factors (e.g., Health & Hygiene); or (iii) remained

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unchanged from the Current Scenario for priorities that could only be addressed with non-

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sanitation related changes or sanitation system design changes (e.g., Individual Septic Tanks).

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In the Added Resource Recovery Scenario, each addressed value was also re-evaluated,

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based on this scenario’s hypothetical changes (Table 1) and the priority (Tables S6 and S8). In

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summary, an addressed value: (i) remained or increased to always addressed for priorities that

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could be completely addressed if the existing sanitation system was functional and recovered

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biogas, water, and compost; (ii) increased by one addressment level for priorities that could be

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partially addressed by resource recovery but may also be influenced by other non-sanitation

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factors; (iii) decreased by one addressment level for priorities that could be negatively affected


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by adding resource recovery but may also be influenced by other non-sanitation factors; or (iv)

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remained unchanged from the Intended Design Scenario for priorities that could only be

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addressed with non-sanitation related changes or other sanitation system design changes.

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Finally, a “total case score” was calculated for each case’s sanitation and community

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priorities (Figure 1). Each priority’s addressed value was multiplied by its AHP weight. Then

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the weighted, addressed values were summed. The maximum total case score is 1, which means

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that all priorities are always addressed; the minimum is 0, which means that no priorities are

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ever addressed. Higher scores mean that more priorities and/or more of the most important

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priorities were addressed. To compare total case scores, one-way analyses of variance were

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performed at a 95% confidence level (α=0.05).32

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Case 17’s Total Case Sanitation Scores. Case 17 is a representative example. It had 12

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sanitation priorities with AHP weights ranging from 0.010 to 0.193 (Figure 2a). With an

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existing nonfunctional conventional sanitation system in the Current Scenario: No Open

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Defecation (AHP weight=0.010) was always addressed (i.e., addressed value=1.0) because 88%

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of the community used the sanitation system; Toilet Cleanliness (AHP weight=0.123) was

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usually addressed (i.e., addressed value=0.67) because households reported cleanliness issues

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on average twice a week; Good Quality Construction (AHP weight=0.113) and Low Cost (AHP

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weight=0.035) were both occasionally addressed (i.e., addressed value=0.33) because the

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sewers were incorrectly constructed, which increased O&M costs by approximately 50%; the

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other eight were never addressed (i.e., addressed value=0). The AHP weighted sum of the 12

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addressed values resulted in a Current Scenario total case sanitation score of 0.15 (Figure 2a),


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which was low because most priorities were not addressed by the existing system, especially

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those priorities most important to the case (e.g., Better Sanitation Planning and Water Reuse,

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with the highest and second highest AHP weights of 0.193 and 0.187, respectively).

187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201

Figure 2. Case 17 presents a representative example for how the priority addressment protocol was applied to determine the extent that sanitation priorities (a) and community priorities (b) were addressed in each scenario. Colors represent how well each priority was addressed or could be addressed in the Current (blue), Intended Design (orange), and Added Resource Recovery (grey) scenarios. A wedge’s height (color fill) represents a priority’s addressed value for each scenario, where zero is never addressed, 0.33 is occasionally addressed, 0.67 is usually addressed, and 1.0 is always addressed. Stacked wedges for each priority are additive, even between scenarios; for a given priority, stacked colors indicate that subsequent scenarios improved priority addressment. For example, the community priority Jobs & Income has an AHP weight of 0.173 (wedge width) and addressed values of 0.33 for the Current Scenario (blue), 0.67 for the Intended Design Scenario (stacked orange), and 1.0 for the Added Resource Recovery Scenario (stacked grey). The community priority Good Sanitation System has an AHP weight of 0.027 and addressed values of zero for the Current Scenario (no blue shown since it is unaddressed), 1.0 for the Intended Design Scenario (orange), and 1.0 for the Added Resource Recovery Scenario (no added grey because no change from the Intended Design Scenario). The grey arrow and * for Low O&M Demands indicates where the addressed value decreased from 0.67 in the Intended Design Scenario to 0.33 in the Added Resource Recovery Scenario.


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In the Intended Design Scenario, the following hypothetical changes were made to

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Case 17’s existing sanitation system such that it was maintained and used as intended by the

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original design: (i) a skilled operator performed all maintenance; (ii) sewer blockages were

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removed and grading was improved; (iii) treatment tank material quality was improved; (iv)

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sewer and treatment tank access lids were replaced; and (v) the fence around the treatment

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system was repaired. Accordingly, the system was then classified as functional because: (i) it

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became fully used (i.e., increasing use from 88% to 100%); (ii) it became properly maintained

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(i.e., increasing maintenance tasks performed from 11% to 100%); and (iii) it started to meet

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effluent water quality regulations. The hypothetical changes resulted in No Open Defecation

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remaining always addressed and six more sanitation priorities becoming always addressed:

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Toilet Cleanliness, Good O&M, Good Quality Construction, Functioning Treatment System,

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No Smells, and Security for Treatment System. Low O&M Demands and Low Cost changed

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from occasionally to usually addressed because the well-constructed, functional system would

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require less emergency maintenance. Better Sanitation Planning became occasionally

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addressed since good planning is positively correlated with sanitation system functionality.33

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Biogas and Water Reuse remained never addressed because the system was not designed to

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recover these resources. The Intended Design Scenario total case sanitation score was 0.62. The

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higher score showed that improving maintenance of the existing sanitation system could help

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address many of Case 17’s most important sanitation priorities.

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In the Added Resource Recovery Scenario, the following hypothetical changes were

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made to the existing system: (i) the system became functional (same changes as in Intended


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Design Scenario), and (ii) the existing system’s design was altered to include resource recovery

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technologies for biogas (digester), water (toilet flushing and irrigation piping), and compost

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(on-site static piles). The seven sanitation priorities that were always addressed in the Intended

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Design Scenario remained always addressed. Three more became always addressed: Water

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Reuse and Biogas because the system’s design was changed from having no to full (water,

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biogas, compost) resource recovery capability; Low Cost because income from the sale of

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biogas, water, and compost could offset O&M costs and because sludge production would likely

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decrease since desludging is the largest contributor to sanitation O&M costs.34 Only one other

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sanitation priority’s addressed value changed in this scenario: Low O&M Demands decreased

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from usually to occasionally addressed because resource recovery systems have more complex

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O&M needs, such as frequent biogas digester monitoring.34,35 The Added Resource Recovery

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Scenario total case sanitation score was 0.84; this scenario had the highest score because

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recovering biogas, water, and compost could address more sanitation priorities.

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Case 17’s Total Case Community Score. There were 11 community priorities with AHP

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weights ranging from 0.013 to 0.232 (Figure 2b). In the Current Scenario, no community

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priorities were always addressed; Electricity and Drainage were usually addressed; Jobs &

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Income, Government Support, Potable Drinking Water, Solid Waste Management, and Water

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Supply were occasionally addressed; and Community Cleanliness, Health & Healthcare, Fence

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Around Lake, and Good Sanitation System were never addressed. The Current Scenario total

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case community score was 0.19. In the Intended Design Scenario, Good Sanitation System

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became always addressed because this system was hypothetically functional. Community


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Cleanliness and Health & Healthcare went from never to occasionally addressed because a

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functional sanitation system could partially reduce lake pollution and exposure to fecal

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pathogens.36 Jobs & Income became usually addressed because a functional sanitation system

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could provide economic benefits of reduced health costs,37missed workdays,38 and increased

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employment.39 The other five addressed values remained unchanged. The Intended Design

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Scenario total case community score was 0.39. In the Added Resource Recovery Scenario,

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Electricity and Jobs & Income increased by one addressment level from the Intended Design

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Scenario because biogas could be used for electricity generation and because the recovered

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resources could be sold or used to reduce expenditures on energy, water, and fertilizer. Water

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Supply changed from occasionally to usually addressed because recycled water could reduce

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scarcity but not meet all water demands. The Added Resource Recovery Scenario total case

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community score was 0.48.

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Results and Discussion Each case’s AHP group decided that the final unordered priority lists were valid and

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comprehensive. In nine cases, one sanitation or community priority was voiced by only one

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participant, but each AHP group confirmed that it was important. For example, in Case 7, the

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male operator was the only participant to voice Security for Treatment System, but the AHP

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group members shared this value. In eight cases, one AHP group member wanted to remove a

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priority, but the AHP group always chose to keep the full list. For example, during Case 14’s

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AHP group, a 20-year-old community member wanted to remove Water Savings from the list,

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but older community members remembered earlier droughts and reinforced its importance.


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Sanitation Priorities On average, each case identified 12 sanitation priorities. Overall, 52 different sanitation

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priorities were identified (Table 2). Only six were very common (i.e., shared by 10 or more

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cases): No Smells, Functioning Treatment System, Toilet Cleanliness, No Open Defecation,

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Safety & Dignity, and Water Reuse. Additionally, 12 cases expressed at least one economic-

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related priority, either: Low Cost, Income Generation, Micro-Loan Program, Jobs for Women,

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or Women’s Empowerment. Many are common to other peri-urban communities, who often

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express priorities related to system performance, maintenance, access, safety, and cost13,40–42

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and a willingness to adopt resource recovery (e.g., water reuse) systems.43,44 The following less-

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common priorities have also been previously identified in the literature: Good O&M,45 Good

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Quality Construction,45 Water Supply at Toilets,42 Reduced Waiting Time,40 Comfortable,41

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Child-Friendly Toilets,42 Privacy,46 Biogas,43 Low Cost 40 Compost,43 Health & Hygiene,13 and

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Community Involvement in Planning.46

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Several sanitation priorities were shared by at least two cases but were identified for

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different reasons. For example, Move Toilets Away from Kitchen/Prayer Room was expressed

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in Cases 1, 7, and 15 because of cleanliness concerns and in Case 2 because of space concerns.

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Western Toilets was identified in Cases 4, 5, and 7 because the elderly struggled with squat-

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plate toilets and in Cases 6, 9, and 18 because community members wanted “modern” facilities.

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Repair System Damage was stated in Case 3 because of broken access covers, in Case 10 because

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of cracked pipes, and in Case 12 because of broken doors on toilet stalls. Due to smells and

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blockages in small, local sewer systems, Cases 1, 3, 8, 10, 16, and 17 wanted Individual Septic


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Tanks while Cases 9 and 19 wanted a Direct Municipal Sewer Connection instead of a local

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treatment system.

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Additionally, cases ranked the shared priorities differently. The importance of the six

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most commonly expressed priorities varied between cases (Figure S2); for example, the rank

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of Toilet Cleanliness ranged from first (AHP weight=0.22) to ninth (AHP weight=0.04) among

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the cases. Also, 12 of the 20 cases had different priorities ranked first. The highest-ranked

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priorities were often those that cases perceived to have the greatest potential to benefit or

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disrupt their sanitation systems. For example, Toilet Cleanliness was ranked first (AHP

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weight=0.22) in Case 14 because most community members stopped using the toilets due to

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poor maintenance and uncleanliness. In contrast, Case 11 ranked Water Supply at Toilets first

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(AHP weight=0.26) because they wanted to keep their constantly available water supply,

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which was important for users. This shows that the priority assessments identified

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comprehensive lists of sanitation priorities and not only outstanding problems.

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Many sanitation priorities were also case-specific; with many not yet identified in the

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literature. Although cases had major similarities (i.e., resource-limited slum resettlements in

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southern India with centralized treatment systems), 18 priorities were expressed only once

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(i.e., by one case) (Table 2), including Water Savings, Jobs for Women, Child-Friendly Toilets,

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and Stop Antisocial Elements. This is likely because valuation of sanitation is informed by

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community-level culture.47,48 For example, Case 20 valued Income Generation for the whole

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community’s benefit while Case 18 specifically valued Jobs for Women because both males

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and females recognized women’s employment as beneficial. Additionally, priorities were case-


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specific due to different sanitation experiences. For example, Case 1 valued Treat Kitchen

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Greywater because community members had previously lived in a community with this

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capability. Case 10’s operator was negligent, so they valued Community O&M Training for

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community members. Overall, finding case-specific priorities and AHP weights across cases

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with similar characteristics shows the need to complete context-specific assessments in every

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case.


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313 314 315 316


Table 2. The 52 sanitation priorities identified across all 20 cases, and the number of cases that shared each priority. Priority definitions are in Tables S2 and S3. Priorities are grouped by Performance/O&M, Use & Access, Benefits, and Planning & Design for readability. The most commonly expressed priorities (shared by 10 or more cases) are highlighted in yellow and bolded. Priorities that could not be addressed by at least one case’s existing system design are highlighted in grey and italicized. R denotes priorities that were influenced by resource recovery in the Added Resource Recovery Scenario. Priorities Related to Performance/O&M Priorities

Priorities Related to Use & Access # of Cases 16

No Smells

Priorities Related to Benefits # of Cases

Priorities

14

No Open Defecation

Functioning Treatment System

15

Safety & Dignity

Toilet Cleanliness

15

11

Water Supply at Toilets

R

9

R

Water Reuse R

Individual Septic Tanks

6

R

6

Increase Sewer Pipe Size

5

1

Move Toilets Away from Kitchen/Prayer Rooms

4

1

Bathing Facilities at Toilets

2

1

Central Location

2

1

Direct Municipal Sewer Connection

2

1

Move Manholes to Grade

2

1

Better Sanitation Planning

1

Low Cost

9

Reduced Waiting Time

4

Health & Hygiene

Good Quality Construction

7

Comfortable

3

4

Repair System Damage

3

Sanitary Napkin Disposal

3

Open 24 Hours

2

7 7

No Sewer Blockages

Security for Treatment System

Treatment System Far Away Western Toilets

Compost

3

10

8

5

Multi-Use Area (Park)

# of Cases

8

Visual Aesthetics

5

Priorities

R

Biogas

9

Low O&M Demands

# of Cases

Priorities

Good O&M

R

Priorities Related to Planning & Design

R

Income Generation Jobs for Women

R

Micro-Loan Program Water Savings

R

R R

Government Support for O&M

2

Privacy

2

Stop Shower Drain Clogging

2

Child-Friendly Toilets

1

Community Involvement in Sanitation Planning

1

Community O&M Training

1

Easy to Use

1

Shade for Sanitation Caretakers

1

Efficient & Functional Treatment System Pumps

1

Lights in Toilets

1

Treat Kitchen Greywater

1

Treatment of Wastewater

1

Stop Antisocial Elements

1

Toilets in All Houses

1

R

Women's Empowerment


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Current Scenario. Overall, the existing sanitation systems did not address priorities well

319

(Figure 3). In all 20 cases, regardless of technology or status, no system always addressed all

320

sanitation priorities (all scores were less than 1.0). The average Current Scenario total case

321

sanitation score was 0.42. Since sanitation priorities were not assessed prior to system

322

implementation in 17 cases (Figure 3), it is likely that the poor addressment occurred because

323

priorities were unknown. Additionally, some were unaddressable, usually due to the system’s

324

design or nonfunctionality. Seventeen of the 20 cases had at least one unaddressable priority,

325

with 13 cases having at least one in their top five most important priorities, usually ranked

326

first. Fourteen priorities required significant planning and design changes that were too

327

expensive or complex (Table 2). For example, in Cases 1 and 8, septic tanks were not installed

328

because the government would only pay for a centralized treatment system; and in Cases 3,

329

10, 16, and 19, septic tanks were not installed due to groundwater contamination risk. Western

330

toilets were too expensive in all seven cases (Cases 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 18). In Case 16, Treatment

331

System Far Away could not be addressed because a cultural heritage site protected their desired

332

location. Additionally, some cases valued resource recovery (Compost, Water Reuse, Biogas),

333

but those priorities were not addressed due to high costs (Cases 1, 3, 15), insufficient space

334

(Cases 9, 20), or inadequate implementer design knowledge (Case 8).

335

Total case sanitation scores were lower for nonfunctional (average=0.18) than

336

functional (average=0.66) sanitation systems because functional systems addressed more

337

sanitation priorities (p=0.000). Case knowledge indicates that unaddressed priorities may be

338

both a cause and an effect of system nonfunctionality. To help understand this relationship, all


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339

cases were re-analyzed as hypothetically functional in the Intended Design Scenario. In

340

addition, of the Current Scenario functional systems, total case sanitation scores were lower

341

for conventional (average=0.50) than for resource recovery (average=0.82) systems, so the

342

Added Resource Recovery Scenario explored the potential of resource recovery

343

Intended Design Scenario. Overall, if the existing sanitation systems could function

344

according to their design then they could address more sanitation priorities (Figure 3). With

345

an average score of 0.75, all cases had a higher total case sanitation score in the Intended Design

346

Scenario than in the Current Scenario (Table S9). Systems that were nonfunctional in the

347

Current Scenario had large score increases, on average by 475% (Table S10). For example, Case

348

12’s total case sanitation score increased from 0.35 to 0.82 because the existing nonfunctional

349

resource recovery system hypothetically changed from: (i) 32% to 100% used, so income from

350

user fees increased such that Micro-Loan Program became usually addressed; (ii) 7% to 100%

351

maintained, so an operator performed maintenance and repaired the fence, such that Water

352

Supply at Toilets, Biogas, Toilet Cleanliness, Security for Treatment System, and Visual

353

Aesthetics became always addressed; and (iii) 0% to 100% of regulations met, so No Smells and

354

Functioning Treatment System became always addressed. Systems that were already

355

functional in the Current Scenario had smaller score increases, on average by 26%. For

356

example, Case 11’s total case sanitation score increased from 0.82 to 0.98 in the Intended

357

Design Scenario because the existing functional resource recovery system hypothetically

358

changed from 92% to 100% maintained, so small cracks in the digester were fixed such that

359

Biogas became always addressed. No total case sanitation score was 1.0 in the Intended Design ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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360

Scenario because no case had a system that, even when functional, could always address all of

361

their sanitation priorities.

362

Added Resource Recovery Scenario. Hypothetically functional, full resource recovery

363

systems resulted in the highest average total case sanitation score of 0.81. More sanitation

364

priorities were addressed in the Added Resource Recovery Scenario than in the Current

365

Scenario (p=0.000), but priority addressment was similar between the Added Resource

366

Recovery and Intended Design scenarios (p=0.325) (Table S9). This suggests that there may be

367

limited benefits to adding resource recovery to address sanitation priorities. In addition,

368

although fewer resource recovery-related priorities were expressed by cases with existing

369

conventional systems (average=2) than cases with existing resource recovery systems

370

(average=4), conventional systems’ scores increased more in this scenario because their

371

resource recovery-related priorities could be met by adding or changing technologies.

372

For the 10 cases that already had some resource recovery, total case sanitation scores

373

from the Intended Design to the Added Resource Recovery Scenario did not change in four

374

cases (Cases 5, 9, 11, 14), increased in four cases (Cases 12, 13, 18, 20, by an average of 6%),

375

and decreased in two cases (Cases 2, 6, both by 2%) (Figure 3). Systems with existing resource

376

recovery technologies were already well-aligned with each case’s priorities, so adding greater

377

resource recovery capability in this scenario had minimal benefits. For example, in the

378

Intended Design Scenario, Case 11’s functional DEWATS system (with a biogas digester and

379

onsite irrigation) produced biogas, which was sold as cooking fuel, and recycled water, which


22

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380

irrigated a profitable vegetable farm. Therefore, no further resource recovery was needed to

381

address Case 11’s priorities.

382

However, for four of these 10 cases, additional resources needed to be recovered to

383

address priorities. For example, Cases 12, 18, and 20 valued Compost, which was never

384

addressed by their existing DEWATS design that only recovered biogas and water. While

385

compost recovery would increase O&M tasks, total case sanitation scores increased when

386

compost recovery was hypothetically added because Case 12 valued Compost more than Low

387

O&M Demands (AHP weights of 0.05 and 0.01, respectively), and Cases 18 and 20 did not

388

value Low O&M Demands. In contrast, total case sanitation scores decreased for Cases 2 and 6

389

due to the hypothetical addition of compost recovery; compost could not address any priorities

390

in either case, and it instead decreased the addressment of Low O&M Demands due to the

391

increase in composting O&M tasks.

392

The total case sanitation scores for the other 10 cases, which had existing conventional

393

systems that were hypothetically changed to include full resource recovery, did not change in

394

two cases (Cases 7, 16), increased in seven cases (Cases 1, 3, 8, 10, 15, 17, 19, by an average of

395

25%), and decreased in one case (Case 4 by 0.2%) from the Intended Design Scenario to the

396

Added Resource Recovery Scenario. The two cases with unchanged scores expressed no

397

resource recovery-related sanitation priorities. For seven cases, though, resource recovery

398

systems better addressed priorities than conventional systems. For example, Water Reuse in

399

Cases 1, 3, and 17 was only addressed in the Added Resource Recovery Scenario since these

400

cases’ existing systems were not designed to recycle water. Low Cost in Cases 3, 4, 10, 17, and


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401

19 became better addressed because resource recovery provides opportunities for cost savings

402

(e.g., reducing expenses due to recycling water) and income generation (e.g., selling biogas).

403

Finally, in Case 4, adding resource recovery resulted in a trade-off because it could reduce costs

404

while also increasing technological complexity and maintenance burdens; since Low O&M

405

Demands (AHP weight=0.08) was valued more than Low Cost (AHP weight=0.05), the total

406

case sanitation score decreased.

407

An important consideration is that some communities reject resource recovery because

408

the benefits do not outweigh the additional maintenance costs.41,43 This is highlighted with

409

the three cases that had total case sanitation scores that decreased in this scenario.

410

Additionally, there can be psychological and cultural barriers towards adopting resource

411

recovery systems; for example, composting toilets are sometimes viewed as a sign of poverty41

412

and water and fertilizer from sanitation systems can be considered unclean.24,49,50 While

413

adding resource recovery increased the scores for the majority of cases, all scenario’s total case

414

sanitation scores were still less than one (Figure 3), demonstrating that there are still

415

opportunities to improve service delivery, technology development, and priority alignment.


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416 417 418 419 420 421 422 423 424 425

Figure 3. Comparison of the ability of the Current Scenario (blue) and potential of the Intended Design (orange) and Added Resource Recovery (grey) Scenarios to address sanitation priorities. Stacked columns are additive between scenarios. The cases are grouped based on each case’s Current Scenario system status (functional or nonfunctional) and technology type (conventional or resource recovery). An arrow indicates when a case’s score decreased (by 0.03 or less) between the Intended Design and Added Resource Recovery Scenarios, which happened in three cases (4, 6, 2), and the black horizontal line shows the decreased score value. A * next to the case number indicates that a limited prior priority assessment (on only community priorities) was conducted by implementers; ** indicates that a comprehensive prior priority assessment (on community and sanitation priorities) was conducted by implementers.

426 427

Community Priorities On average, each case identified 13 community priorities; a total of 40 different

428

community priorities were identified from the 20 cases (Table S11). The 12 most commonly

429

expressed priorities have been previously identified: Community Cleanliness,13 Good

430

Sanitation System,51 Drainage,40 Solid Waste Management,13 Jobs & Income,13 Water Supply,46

431

Education,13 Health & Healthcare,13 House Improvements,13 Potable Drinking Water,46

432

Government Support,13 and Cooking Fuel.40 The importance of these priorities also varied


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433

greatly between cases (Figure S3). The less-common community priorities were often case-

434

specific, with 16 expressed by one case apiece, including Micro-Loans for Women, Land

435

Ownership, and Library (Table S11), and were not yet identified in the literature. Priorities

436

were likely different between cases due to differences in existing infrastructure and services.

437

For example, only Case 1 valued Graveyard since they were the only case without one. Overall,

438

only 11 community priorities were related to sanitation or resource recovery: Community

439

Cleanliness, Good Sanitation System, Jobs & Income, Water Supply, Health & Healthcare,

440

Cooking Fuel, Eradicating Pests, Electricity, Overall Community Development, Micro-Loans

441

for Women, and Women’s Empowerment.

442

Current Scenario. Community priorities, more than sanitation, were poorly addressed

443

in the Current Scenario. The average total case community score was 0.31 (minimum=0.17;

444

maximum=0.55) (Figure S4). The low scores were expected since 29 community priorities were

445

unrelated to sanitation (e.g., Road Improvements). Also, all priorities related to sanitation or

446

resource recovery, except Good Sanitation System, were influenced by multiple factors and

447

could not be fully addressed by a sanitation system alone (e.g., Health & Healthcare). Similar

448

to sanitation, more community priorities were addressed by functional than nonfunctional

449

sanitation systems (score averages of 0.37 and 0.25, respectively).

450

Intended Design Scenario. Hypothetical functionality had minimal benefits. The total

451

case community scores remained low across all 20 cases (average=0.44) in this scenario because

452

many community priorities do not relate to sanitation and most sanitation systems are not

453

designed to meet multiple infrastructure or social needs. However, hypothetically changing


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454

the 10 existing nonfunctional systems to become functional allowed them to address more

455

community priorities (scores increased by 98% on average) (Table S12); they could then always

456

address Good Sanitation System and better address Community Cleanliness, Health &

457

Healthcare, Eradicating Pests, Jobs & Income, and Overall Community Development. Only

458

two of the 10 cases with existing functional systems had total case community scores change

459

in this scenario (Cases 2, 11). The scores increased because hypothetical digester repairs

460

resulted in biogas production and sales; therefore, Electricity, Cooking Fuel, and Jobs & Income

461

could be better addressed.

462

The protocol’s score evaluation should be updated as more research on possible impacts

463

becomes available and should be as context-specific as possible. There are mixed findings on

464

the amount of benefits from sanitation (some studies show a range of benefits30,36,38 while some

465

find no impacts52,53), and not all benefits can be realized in certain contexts (e.g., a market for

466

biogas needs to be available for it to have an economic benefit). Due to currently limited

467

information, two main assumptions were used. First, since the uncertainty analysis

468

demonstrated that the value of a single priority’s addressment score alone was relatively

469

uninfluential on the total case score (Figure S5), an assumption of maximum potential benefits

470

from sanitation, as found in literature, was used (e.g., functional sanitation systems and

471

resource recovery positively influence health and income). Second, it was assumed that all

472

priorities associated with a hypothetical change would be simultaneously improved. This large

473

improvement would be unlikely (e.g., since there is a limited amount of biogas that can be

474

produced from small sanitation systems), but this second assumption was used because it is


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475

uncertain which priority, over other more and less important priorities, would be addressed

476

and because total case scores and results were insensitive to this calculation approach (i.e., the

477

scores were equal or decreased by only 2% ± 6% when only one versus multiple related

478

priorities’ addressed values were changed) (Figure S5).

479

Added Resource Recovery Scenario. In this scenario, the average total case community

480

score was 0.49, the highest of the three scenarios. However, this scenario’s individual case

481

scores were not significantly different from the Intended Design Scenario’s scores (p=0.212)

482

(Table S13); there was no change in scores for three cases and less than a 20% change for the

483

other 17 cases (Figure S4). Scores increased in all 10 cases that had conventional systems

484

hypothetically changed to resource recovery systems (scores increased 19% on average) and in

485

seven cases that already recovered one resource and were hypothetically changed to recover

486

two additional resources (scores increased 8% on average). The scores did not change for three

487

cases because their priorities were well-addressed by the existing designs, which already

488

included two or three types of resource recovery. Although these scores did not change, there

489

could be a benefit from additional resource recovery not quantified with the “always

490

addressed” definition, such as the benefit of reducing resource scarcity. Overall, the minimal

491

changes in scores suggest that there might be diminishing benefits of adding multiple types of

492

resource recovery. Of the three resources, biogas and water had greater potential to address

493

more sanitation and community priorities than compost. For example, Biogas, valued in nine

494

cases, could partially address Electricity in eight cases and Cooking Fuel in 10 cases. Water

495

Reuse, valued in 10 cases, could partially address Water Supply in 17 cases. Compost was ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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496

valued in six cases, but since all cases lacked agricultural opportunities, no community

497

priorities could be addressed by compost.

498 499

Implications and Priority Assessment Importance Overall, low total case scores for the Current Scenario highlight that existing systems

500

poorly address priorities because priorities were unknown or unaddressable or because systems

501

were nonfunctional. Score increases in the hypothetical scenarios demonstrate that

502

improvements to sanitation technology design and service delivery could address more

503

priorities. This shows the need to evaluate why systems are failing using a systematic approach.

504

Additionally, most priorities and rankings were case-specific. Only nine (Cases 4, 6, 8, 9, 11,

505

15, 18, 19, 20) had their priorities evaluated prior to sanitation implementation, with only

506

three (Cases 11, 18, 20) having both sanitation and community priorities assessed using a

507

diversity of community perspectives.26 This shows the importance of implementers conducting

508

assessments in each case.

509

Prior priority assessments, though, were not correlated with system status, system

510

technology, or total case scores within the 20 cases (Figures 2 and S5). Knowing priorities is

511

still expected to be important,9,54 so this lack of a trend may be because assessments focused

512

exclusively on problems. For example, many of the prior evaluations were limited to

513

community priorities. In this study, it was found that community priorities mostly reflected a

514

snapshot of current problems; 85% of community priorities were current problems

515

(unaddressed). This is likely because cases lacked access to basic infrastructure and services. In

516

contrast, sanitation priorities included problems and existing capabilities that cases wanted to


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517

keep; only 55% of sanitation priorities were problems (unaddressed). Consequently, assessing

518

overall community priorities may miss existing services and infrastructure that could be a

519

problem in the future and must be maintained. Therefore, priority assessments should be

520

context-specific and encourage participants to identify priorities that are not just current

521

problems so that both short-term and long-term needs can be considered.

522

Further, no case’s prior assessment identified the most important priorities. While

523

ranking priorities can have limitations,55 knowing their relative importance can identify

524

interventions that maximize incentives for a case to use and maintain a sanitation system. Also,

525

it helps to quantify addressment, which can be used to compare sanitation systems’ social

526

sustainability. While many frameworks include indicators for social sustainability, such as

527

acceptance,56,57 satisfaction,58,59 appropriateness to local context,19 and cultural sensitivity,17 these

528

frameworks call for method development to measure these social indicators, do not define the

529

indicators (e.g., do not state how to measure them), or state that indicators should be adapted to

530

local context without providing that guidance. This study’s priority addressment protocol uses

531

concepts from existing social indicators, such as acceptance and satisfaction, to identify specific

532

ways that sanitation systems could be improved to increase social sustainability. The protocol does

533

this by combining context-specific priorities (i.e., individual indicators determined by

534

communities themselves) into one quantitative indicator. This protocol and resulting social

535

sustainability indicator (i.e., total case score) was used to evaluate sanitation; it can also be used

536

to evaluate a diverse range of engineering systems (e.g., drinking water, energy). Researchers and

537

implementers can use this study’s results and priority addressment protocol to elucidate which

538

technologies and strategies minimize tradeoffs and meet the most priorities long-term.


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539

Supporting Information

540

Details of the methods and additional tables and figures.

541

Acknowledgements

542

We thank our assistants, Vijay Kumar and Sridhar Selvaraj, and all participants in this research

543

for their indispensable time and support.

544

Funding Sources

545

This work was completed with financial support from the Mortenson Center in Engineering

546

for Developing Communities.

547 548 549 550 551 552 553 554 555 556 557 558 559 560 561 562 563 564 565 566 567 568 569

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