Segmental Dynamics Govern the Cold Crystallization of Poly

Article Cite This: Macromolecules XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX

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Segmental Dynamics Govern the Cold Crystallization of Poly(lactic acid) in Nanoporous Alumina Guangyu Shi,†,‡ Yu Guan,†,‡ Guoming Liu,*,†,‡ Alejandro J. Müller,§,∥ and Dujin Wang†,‡

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†

Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences (BNLMS), CAS Key Laboratory of Engineering Plastics, CAS Research/Education Center for Excellence in Molecular Sciences, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China ‡ University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China § POLYMAT and Polymer Science and Technology Department, Faculty of Chemistry, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Paseo Manuel de Lardizabal 3, Donostia-San Sebastián 20018, Spain ∥ IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao 48013, Spain S Supporting Information *

ABSTRACT: How segmental mobility influences the crystallization behavior of polymers in confined spaces is still not fully understood. In the present work, a systematic study of the segmental dynamics was carried out by dielectric relaxation spectroscopy (DRS) on racemic poly(DL-lactic acid) (PDLLA) confined in nanoporous alumina. The effects of the pore size and thermal history were examined. Two glass transition temperatures (Tg) were observed, and an unusual “hysteresis” of the segmental relaxation time was detected. At lower temperatures, the segmental mobility of PDLLA “speeds up” first and “slows down” upon annealing. Both effects indicate the dynamically heterogeneous and nonequilibrium nature of chain segments under confinement. The “equilibrating process” of the relaxation time was monitored by DRS, and the characteristic time exhibited Arrhenius behavior. The experimental evidence supports a reversible adsorption/desorption mechanism of chain segments. The enhanced cold crystallization of poly(lactic acid) (PLLA) we reported previously (Macromolecules, 2015, 48 (8), 2526−2533) can be explained adequately with the “enhanced mobility” of segments. This was further justified by the shift of the cold crystallization temperature toward higher temperatures of infiltrated PLLA after annealing.

1. INTRODUCTION

chain dynamics of amorphous or semicrystalline polymers. Many polymers, such as poly(styrene) (PS),15 poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA),16−19 polysiloxanes,14,20 cis-1,4-polyisoprene (PI),21 polycarbonate (PC),22 poly(vinylidene fluoride),23 poly(propylene glycol) (PPG),24,25 and polypeptides26 have been investigated. Despite the variety of studies, a general understanding of polymer dynamics within AAO templates has not been reached so far, as the size dependence of the dynamics does not always show clear trends. The speedup of segmental dynamics (decrease of Tg) has been observed in a variety of amorphous polymers, such as poly(methyl phenyl siloxane) (PMPS),20 poly(vinyl acetate), 2 0 1,4-polybutadiene, 2 0 poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS),20 PMMA,19 and PPG,24 as well as in several semicrystalline polymers, such as PCL.27 However, a rather irregular change of the segmental dynamics

The dynamics of soft matter under nanoscale confinement differ from bulk behavior. The physical nature of the deviations has been attracting much attention in the past two decades.1,2 Model systems have been constructed and investigated extensively, in particular polymer thin films3,4 and nanocomposites.5−7 Generally, depending on the choice of the polymer and substrate, changes of segmental relaxation time or shifts in the glass transition temperatures (increase or decrease with confinement) have been reported, which is usually discussed as a counterbalance of different factors. A freesurface or repulsive interface8−11 accelerates the segmental mobility (Tg depression), while adsorptive or attractive interface2,12−14 generally exhibits a slowdown effect on the dynamics (Tg increase). Exploring the effect of 2D confinement on the segmental dynamics of polymers is a very interesting subject. Anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) membranes with arrays of isolated, parallel, uniform nanocylinders have become a model system for studying the effects of confinement on the segmental or © XXXX American Chemical Society

Received: March 18, 2019 Revised: July 18, 2019

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DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.9b00542 Macromolecules XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX

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2. EXPERIMENTAL SECTION

has been frequently observed. For instance, the segmental relaxation time of PBLG polypeptide did not change monotonically with pore size.26 Blaszczyk-Lezak et al.16 reported that the PMMA within 28 nm diameter AAO showed opposite trends as compared with the samples infiltrated in 35 and 65 nm AAO.16 In PI, the Tg was reported to be invariant upon confinement, but the width of the segmental and chain relaxation peaks broadened remarkably.21 A similar broadening effect was seen in poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), and the change of average segmental relaxation time did not show a clear trend.28 Broadening and decreased Tg value was also observed in PC.22 Such broadening is frequently explained as a manifestation of retarded global mobility.21 Decoupling of dynamic and thermal Tg seems to be a general phenomenon in confined systems.29 The chain mobility has also been evaluated by indirect means, that is, the density of entanglements has been found to decrease with confinement by small-angle neutron scattering15 and computer simulation.14 Serghei et al.30 found no variations in the segmental dynamics of poly-2vinylpyridine (P2VP) within nanopores. It is believed that there is an immobilized layer in the proximity of the pore surface when PDMS and PEO are infiltrated in AAO templates.14 In some cases, more than one glass transition temperatures have been observed,17,18 which naturally leads to a “multilayer model”. Two different Tgs are detected in infiltrated PMMA within 80 nm AAO pores after slow cooling the melt, while only one is detected after fast cooling from the melt.17 It was anticipated that two distinct layers are formed during vitrification under slow cooling: an interfacial layer with a higher Tg and a core with a lower Tg, as compared with the bulk. Fast-cooled PMMA showed a single Tg. Three Tgs were observed for infiltrated PMMA within larger pores (300 nm), and a three-layer model was further proposed.18 Similar two Tgs were found in PPG,24,25 the time for segmental relaxation and normal mode increased below a crossover temperature. These phenomena highlighted the role of thermal history on the dynamics in confined systems. It is anticipated that segmental dynamics should have a strong influence on crystallization under confinement. It is known that the crystallization rate is determined by nucleation and growth, with segmental mobility playing a role. However, because the nucleation mechanism variation usually has a more pronounced influence on the crystallization rate, the effect of segmental dynamics is seldom demonstrated clearly. In our previous study, we showed an unusual acceleration effect of the crystallization rate when infiltrated poly(lactic acid) (PLLA) crystallized from the glassy state within AAO template;31 however, it is still not known why the nucleation was promoted by the amorphous AAO wall. To address this issue, in this work, to eliminate the influence of crystallization, a racemic poly(DL-lactic acid) (PDLLA) was selected. The segmental dynamics of PDLLA under confinement in AAO templates were systematically examined by dielectric relaxation spectroscopy (DRS). An acceleration effect of the segmental dynamics was observed. Interestingly, annealing leads to a slowdown effect on segmental dynamics. The results demonstrate a clear counterbalance of confinement and adsorption effects. Along with the slowdown of segmental dynamics during annealing, the cold crystallization rate of infiltrated PLLA decreased remarkably with annealing. Therefore, a strong correlation between the segmental mobility and cold crystallization of PLLA was established.

2.1. Materials and Sample Preparation. Poly(DL-lactic acid) (PDLLA) with equimolar D and L isomers, with a number-average molecular weight (Mn) of 20 000 g/mol and a polydispersity index of 1.34 and hydroxyl-terminated poly(L-lactic acid) (PLLA) with a Mn of 7000 g/mol and polydispersity index of 1.36 were purchased from Daigang Biomaterials Inc. (Jinan, China). AAO templates with pore diameters Φ = 40, 60, 100, 200, 400 nm, and a pore length of approximately 100 μm, were purchased from Shanghai Shangmu Technology Co. Ltd. The preparation procedure has been published previously.32,33 All the as-received empty AAO templates were rinsed with distilled waters and annealed at 773 K for 5 h to get rid of the adsorbing water and organic molecules. The polymer samples were dried in a vacuum oven at 353 K overnight. The polymer films were placed on the surface of AAO in a home-made vacuum chamber and treated at 493 K under vacuum for 1.5 h and then under a nitrogen atmosphere for 1.5 h. The residual polymer on the surface of AAO was cleaned completely according to our previous recommended procedure.32 2.2. Characterization. The pores of AAO and morphology of the nanorods were studied by a scanning electron microscope (SEM, JSM-6700F JEOL). The acceleration voltage was 5 kV. To isolate the polymeric nanorods, the AAO template was solved in a phosphoric acid solution (3.5% v/v) containing 4.5 g/mL chromium trioxide. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) was utilized to investigate the crystallization/melting behavior of polymers. The instrument (Q2000, TA) was calibrated before measurements. For cold crystallization from the glassy state, the samples were heated to 473 K to erase the thermal history. Subsequently, the samples were cooled to 273 K (100 K/min). Finally, the samples were heated from 273 to 473 K at a heating rate of 10 K/min. To study the effect of annealing, the samples were first heated to 473 K and then quenched to 342 K at 100 K/min. After annealing at 342 K for different times, the samples were heated to 473 K at 10 K/min. Broadband dielectric relaxation spectroscopy (DRS) was measured using the Novacontrol Alpha dielectric spectrometer at ambient pressure. The complex dielectric permittivity ε*(ω) = ε′(ω) − iε″(ω) was recorded over 10−2 to 107 Hz. A Quatro Cryosystem was used to control the temperature. The bulk PDLLA was measured using a parallel plate cell (diameter: 20 mm; gap: 0.2 mm). AAO templates filled with PDLLA were measured using a similar sample cell (diameter: 20 mm; thickness: ∼1 mm). Three temperature protocols were used to perform the DRS measurements of the AAO-infiltrated PDLLA. Protocol 1 (P1): first, the thermal history was erased by heating to 473 K and then, the samples were cooled down to 213 K at a rate of 20 K/min. Then, the frequency scan with a range of 10−2 to 107 Hz was carried out isothermally at increasingly higher temperatures (i.e., every 2 K). Each frequency scan takes about 30 min, therefore resulting in an equivalent heating rate of ∼0.067 K/min. Protocol 2 (P2): the frequency scan was performed from the melt, every 2 K, with a frequency range of 10−2 to 107 Hz. Because each frequency scan under isothermal conditions requires 30 min, samples measured with protocol 2 (P2) have a very low cooling rate, ∼0.067 K/min. Protocol 3 (P3): first, the thermal history was erased by heating to 473 K and then, the samples were cooled down to 213 K at a rate of 20 K/min. Then, temperature scans were performed during heating from the glassy state at a fixed frequency (1 Hz) and heating rate of ∼3 K/min. Empty AAO templates were also measured by DRS using the same protocols, and the signal was negligible as compared to the infiltrated AAO (Supporting Information Figure S1).

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1. Morphology of PDLLA Nanorods. The nanorods of PDLLA and the cross-sectional morphology of AAO templates are shown in Figure 1. The pores of AAO exhibit a uniform diameter. They are parallel to each other with no interconnections. The morphology indicates that the AAO B


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caused by the bulk-like core polymer, similar to the previous reports.17,18,24,25 3.3. Segmental Relaxation Time. To investigate in more detail the segmental dynamics of PDLLA, frequency scans were carried out. Figure 3a,b shows the typical frequency plots of dielectric loss for bulk and infiltrated PDLLA at different temperatures. For bulk PDLLA, a single dielectric loss peak is seen. With increasing temperature, the peak position moves to higher frequencies, indicating shorter relaxation time. For infiltrated PDLLA, a similar shift of the loss peaks is seen. However, there is an increase in the intensity of the loss peak during heating. The physical origin of the increase will be discussed later. To extract the relaxation time, the phenomenological Havriliak−Negami (HN) function was applied to fit the dielectric loss curve36 ε*(ω) = ε∞ +

Figure 1. SEM images of PDLLA nanorods prepared with 400 nm AAO (a) and cross-sectional images of empty AAO with Φ = 200 (b), 100 (c), and 40 nm (d). The length of the scale bars is 1 μm.

σ Δε + c a b i ε [1 + (i ωτ) ] 0ω

where ε∞ is the dielectric permittivity in the absence of polarization processes (high-frequency limit), Δε, τ, a, and b represent the dielectric strength, relaxation time, and shape parameters, respectively. The term on the right indicates the contribution of conduction, where ε0 represents the vacuum permittivity. It is noted that although the two loss peaks are observed during heating (Figure 2) only one relaxation peak is observed in the frequency scan, and the result can be nicely fitted with a single HN function. Similar treatments have been reported previously.25,37 The obtained τ should be regarded as an average of all of the segments within the system. The characteristic relaxation time is plotted as a function of reciprocal temperature (Arrhenius plot). It turns out that the segmental dynamics of confined polymer deviate from the bulk polymer and thermal history plays a significant role. As shown in Figure 3c, with the thermal protocol P1, the bulk PLLA exhibits typical nonequilibrium behavior and can be fitted with the Vogel−Fulcher−Tammann (VFT) equation38−40

membranes we employed provide an ideal model system to explore the physical behavior of polymers under confinement. 3.2. Glass Transition Temperature (Tg). Because of the limited amount of polymers inside the AAO template, the DSC curves are too noisy to measure the glass transition. Fortunately, the DRS signal is much stronger. Figure 2 shows ε″ as a function of temperature during heating from the glassy state (at ∼3 K/min) after cooling the samples from the melt (473 K) to 273 K at a cooling rate of 20 K/min.

ij D T yz τα = τ∞ expjjj T 0 zzz j T − T0 z k {

where τ∞, DT, and T0 are constants to fit the data. An important observation in Figure 3c is the superposition of the curves at high temperatures and the obvious deviation at low temperatures. The transition temperature is ∼325−329 K. The difference in the relaxation time becomes more obvious when the PDLLA was infiltrated in smaller pores. On the other hand, as shown in Figure 3d, for thermal protocol P2, the deviation of the segmental relaxation time is less pronounced as compared with that for P1, although the mobility of segments is still higher under confinement. It is striking to observe a strong “hysteresis” effect of the relaxation time of PDLLA under confinement. If the sample is remeasured during heating right after the measurement following the protocol P2, the relaxation times are the same for the two measurements (Figure S2, Supporting Information). Therefore, it is very likely that the “hysteresis” results from kinetic reasons. This assignment can be further confirmed by Figure 4. The measurement is designed as follows: first, the thermal history was erased by heating to 473 K, then the sample was cooled down to 213 K at a rate of 20 K/min. Then, the sample was heated to a temperature at a rate of 20 K/min to carry out the isothermal frequency scan. To

Figure 2. Dielectric loss (ε″) curve of bulk and infiltrated PDLLA in different AAO templates. The samples were measured during heating (protocol P3) with a fixed frequency of 1 Hz.

The bulk PDLLA sample exhibits a single loss peak at ∼321 K in Figure 2, which corresponds to the local segmental relaxation (Tg) of PDLLA. The “normal mode” relaxation, corresponding to the fluctuation of the end-to-end vector, is not observed in the experimental range because our sample has a high molecular weight.34,35 Two loss peaks appear for the infiltrated PDLLA within smaller AAO pores. The loss peak of infiltrated PDLLA in 400 nm AAO is very broad and may be caused by a superposition of two peaks. The lower Tg locates at ∼308 K (13 K lower than the bulk Tg), and the higher Tg locates at almost the same temperature of the bulk PDLLA. As a lower Tg indicates higher segmental mobility, the results lead to a natural explanation of a two-layer model, where the lower Tg comes from a “mobile” interface layer and the higher Tg is C


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Figure 3. Typical curves of dielectric loss (ε″) as a function of frequency of bulk PDLLA (a) and infiltrated PDLLA in 40 nm AAO templates (b) with a temperature protocol 1 (P1) and the Arrhenius plot of bulk and infiltrated PDLLA with thermal protocols: (c) P1; (d) P2. The temperature interval of the curves in (a,b) was 2 K.

The height of the dielectric loss peak is proportional to the number of dipoles for relaxation. As a qualitative analysis, the intensity of the peak was plotted as a function of temperature for both of the thermal protocols (P1 and P2) in Figure S4 (Supporting Information). During heating or cooling of the bulk PDLLA, Δε is almost independent of temperature. However, a transition-like increase of Δε is observed for 100 nm PDLLA during heating according to P1. The temperature of this transition is 330 K, which agrees with the endpoint of the Tg range. The kinetics of the annealing process is expected to be temperature-dependent. The segmental relaxation time (τ) obtained by fitting the loss factor−temperature curve with HN function was plotted as a function of the annealing time (Figures 5a and S5). It is seen that the segmental relaxation time increases rapidly at first and then slowly upon further annealing. It is interesting to find that the segmental relaxation time (τ) can be described by a saturating exponential function of the type

Figure 4. Dielectric loss (ε″) as a function of the frequency of bulk PDLLA (a) and infiltrated PDLLA in 100 nm AAO templates (b). The samples were annealed at 333 K for different periods.

τ(t ) = τ∞ − (τ∞ − τ0)* exp( −t /τc)

access the kinetics, a narrower frequency range was chosen from 1 to 106 Hz, thus each measurement needs only 77 s. Figure 4 compares the change of dielectric loss curves with annealing at the same temperature. No significant change can be observed for the bulk sample. Interestingly, the peak maximum shifts toward lower frequencies with the annealing time, indicating an increase of the relaxation time (up to 6 times). This clearly indicates that (part of) the PDLLA chains cooled from the melt rapidly as described by thermal protocol P1 are not in stable states and their physical configurations change with time. Note that the hysteresis phenomena were reproduced after several times of cyclic measurement, indicating that no chemical change has occurred during the measurement (Figure S3, Supporting Information).

where τ∞ is the segmental relaxation time with infinite annealing time, τ0 is the initial relaxation time, and τc is the characteristic time to describe the speed of approaching τ∞. Obviously, when t = 0, the exponential term is unity and τ equals its initial value τ0. When t ≫ τc, the exponential term vanishes, and τ approaches τ∞. Note that the chosen equation is an approximation of the analytical expression reported previously.41 Figure 5b represents the normalized segmental relaxation time as a function of the annealing time, and it is clear that the segmental relaxation approaches a stable value faster at higher temperatures. Interestingly, the logarithm of τc increases D


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Figure 5. (a) Change of the segmental relaxation time (τ) as a function of annealing time at 333 K; (b) normalized segmental relaxation time, τmax(t ) − τ0 , as a function of annealing time of infiltrated PDLLA in 100 nm AAO at different temperatures; (c) Arrhenius plot of the characteristic τ∞ − τ0

time τc ≈ 1000/T. (d) Change of (τ∞ − τ0)/τ∞ as a function of temperature. The sample is infiltrated PDLLA within 100 nm AAO templates.

linearly with the inverse temperature, indicating a typical Arrhenius behavior

The confinement effect is frequently discussed in terms of the cooperative rearrangement region (CRR) model proposed by Adam and Gibbs.46 The model argued that the CRR size (ξ) became larger with decreasing temperature and the increasing ξ(T) attributes the increase of segmental relaxation time. It is estimated that ξ is in the range of several nanometers at Tg,47,48 When the domain size is small, ξ cannot exceed the domain size; therefore, the segmental mobility will be enhanced.3,49 While this picture is straightforward and attractive, the size of AAO in our study is much bigger than ξ. The deviation of the VFT equation is prominent even for 400 nm AAO in thermal history P1; thus, this explanation can be excluded. Chain segments in proximity to the surface possess higher freedom to move, that is, interfacial free volume, and thus would have shorter relaxation time.8−10 The surface-to-volume ratio increases with the decreasing pore diameter in AAO pores, which agrees with the stronger deviation of bulk dynamics in Figure 3c. The thermal history dependence of the relaxation time indicates the nonequilibrium nature of the quenched sample. During annealing, the excess in segmental mobility gets reduced (Figure 5a). Thermal history P2, with prolonged time in the melt, approaches closer to bulk behavior (Figure 3d). The equilibration process was proposed to be governed by irreversible adsorption in polymer thin films.43 Intuitively, the physical mechanism in question should allow the reduction of free energy by reduction of free volume near the interface. The characteristic time to reach equilibrium (103 to 104 s) is ∼7 orders of magnitude longer than the segmental relaxation time (10−4 to 10−3 s). The ratio of characteristic time agrees with the experiments on thin films.43 It is reasonable to see that the value of (τ∞ − τ0)/τ∞ of PDLLA changes significantly with temperature, which agrees with the mechanism of reversible

τc = A exp(Ea /RT )

where A is a constant, Ea is the activation energy, and R is the universal gas constant. Ea is estimated by the slope of the fitting curve, yielding a value of 282 ± 5 kJ/mol. This value is remarkably higher than the activation energy of adsorption of PS on silicon oxide (66 ± 11 kJ/mol) which has been attributed to local noncooperative rearrangements.42 Such a high activation energy probably indicates a cooperative nature of the relaxation process. The data points in Figures 5c and 3c were plotted together in Figure S6 in the Supporting Information. It is found that the equilibration process can be superimposed onto the segmental relaxation by multiplying a temperature-independent constant. For the investigated system, the equilibration or adsorption process is 107 times lower than the segmental mobility. Therefore, the picture of molecular process of adsorption could be that after many times (∼107) of trials, new chains are adsorbed and the interfacial free volume is thus annihilated, in line with the mechanism described in thin films.43 Furthermore, we noticed that the (τ∞ − τ0)/τ∞, characterizing the “degree of deviation from equilibrium” decreases with temperature (Figure 5d). 3.4. Physical Origin of the Change of Segmental Dynamics. The effect of the interface on segmental dynamics has been frequently interpreted considering the counterbalance between confinement and adsorption effects. Enhanced dynamics were observed in PMPS under confinement within nanoporous glasses with pore sizes ranging from 2.5 to 20 nm.44,45 A transition from VFT-like to Arrhenius law was observed when the pore size decreased to 5 nm. Deviations of bulk dynamics at low temperatures were also reported in PPG confined in AAO templates.24,25 E


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others pores. This is the reason why the crystallization exotherm is much broader for polymers in AAO. To explore how the chain adsorption can influence the cold crystallization of PLLA, the samples were cooled from the melt at a cooling rate of 100 K/min to 342 K, and they were annealed at that temperature for different periods. With increasing annealing time, the Tcc of bulk PLLA shifts to lower temperatures and the area of the cold crystallization peak becomes smaller, indicating crystallization takes place during annealing (Figure 7a). The crystals formed during annealing act as nuclei for further crystallization during heating. Unlike bulk PLLA, the cold crystallization peak of infiltrated PLLA moves to higher temperatures (Figure 7b), although crystallization also occurs in infiltrated PLLA during annealing as shown by GIWAXS (Figure S7). Figure 7c shows the change of Tcc as a function of the annealing time. When the annealing time reaches 60 min, Tcc of infiltrated PLLA reaches 381 K, which is 20 K higher than the initial value (Figure 7c). This observation agrees with our expectation that adsorbed chains restrict the crystallization of PLLA. The annealing temperature selected, 342 K, is above the Tg. Therefore, crystallization will occur during annealing. As shown in Figure 7d, the crystallization enthalpy during annealing can be obtained by ΔHm − ΔHcc. For bulk PLLA, the degree of crystallization increases slowly at the beginning and then rapidly during annealing. No cold crystallization peak can be detected for bulk PLLA after annealing for 30 min, indicating that crystallization has reached saturation during annealing. However, for the infiltrated PLLA in AAO pores, the degree of crystallinity is higher than that of the bulk for short periods of annealing but increases slowly. A maximum value of 0.65 is reached after annealing for 25 min. Further annealing does not contribute to higher crystallinity. The different cold crystallization behavior of bulk and infiltrated PLLA can be explained by the interplay between interfacial enhanced nucleation and adsorption retarded crystallization. As shown in Figure 5, adsorption is a gradual process. For short-time annealing, the chains may not have enough time to adsorb on the AAO wall. Those chains with higher mobility will crystallize faster than those in the bulk during annealing. With prolonged annealing, those uncrystallized PLLA chains will have enough time for adsorption. Once adsorbed, the nucleation rate of those chains decreased significantly and the cold crystallization peak shifts toward higher temperatures.

adsorption/desorption of chains. The equilibrium constant moves in favor of desorption at elevated temperatures. 3.5. Impact of Segmental Dynamics on Crystallization. It is interesting to consider the relationship between segmental dynamics and the cold crystallization of PLLA. In our previous paper,31 the cold crystallization of infiltrated PLLA within nanoporous AAO was enhanced. The temperature scan rate of DSC is much higher than that of DRS. Therefore, in this case, polymer chains have less time to adsorb. It is expected that the segmental mobility is enhanced as compared with the bulk PLLA. Therefore, the unusual enhanced nucleation effect of the amorphous AAO wall may be related to the mobile chains in the vicinity of the wall. According to the classical formula proposed by Turnbull and Fisher,50 the polymer nucleation rate is given by

i ΔG* + ΔE yz zz I = I0 expjjj− kT k { where ΔG* is the free energy barrier of forming a critical nucleus and ΔE is the activation energy of diffusion of segments across the phase boundary. Intuitively, the term ΔG* should be independent of the confinement if we assume homogeneous nucleation. However, the term ΔE is directly related to the chain mobility. Higher mobility will reduce the nucleation barrier and contribute to a higher nucleation rate. As the segmental mobility “slows down” during annealing, it is interesting to see how the cold crystallization behavior changes with the thermal treatment. Figure 6 shows the DSC

Figure 6. DSC heating scans of bulk and infiltrated PLLA from the glassy state after being quenched under the condition of 100 K/min. The heating rate is 10 K/min.

4. CONCLUSIONS We investigated the segmental dynamics of PDLLA within nanoporous alumina templates with different pore diameters. The first “enhanced” and gradual “slowdown” of segmental mobility upon annealing at temperatures near the glass transition was observed. The deviation from bulk behavior was more pronounced for PDLLA in smaller AAO pores. The nonequilibrium feature of the segmental mobility was shown to originate from the reversible adsorption of the PDLLA chains: the surface effect caused the “speed up” and subsequent “timeconsuming” adsorption attributed to the “slowdown” of segmental dynamics. The rate of chain adsorption exhibited an activation energy of 282 ± 5 kJ/mol, corresponding to a cooperative nature of the relaxation process. The observations of this work explain the enhanced cold crystallization of PLLA from the glassy state31 by the enhanced mobility of chain segments in the vicinity of the AAO wall (surface nucleation).

heating curves of quenched PLLA bulk and confined samples. The cold crystallization peak of infiltrated PLLA is broader than that of the bulk PLLA. The peak temperature of cold crystallization (Tcc) of infiltrated PLLA is lower than that of the bulk PLLA, which agrees with our previous study.31 To understand the difference in the curve shape, we need to consider the difference in the crystallization process of bulk and confined samples. In bulk, once nucleation starts, the crystallization will proceed quickly via crystal growth. On the other hand, the nuclei can only influence the crystallization of a single pore. The pores without nuclei will have to “wait” for the formation of nuclei. Because homogeneous nucleation is a random process, nuclei may form quickly in some pores, whereas it may take a long time to form a nucleus in some F


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Figure 7. DSC heating curves of quenched bulk (a) and infiltrated PLLA (b) in 60 nm AAO annealed at 342 K for different periods. Tcc (c) and enthalpy (d) during annealing at 342 K extracted from DSC measurements.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work is supported by the National Key R&D Program of China (2017YFE0117800) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (21873109, 51820105005). G.L. is grateful to the Youth Innovation Promotion Association of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (2015026) and the Open Research Fund of State Key Laboratory of Polymer Physics and Chemistry (CIAC) (201510). A.J.M. gratefully acknowledges the financial support from MINECO through project MAT2017-83014-C2-1-P. G.L., D.W., and A.J.M. acknowledge European funding by the RISE BIODEST project (H2020MSCA-RISE-2017-778092). G.S. thanks Dr. Wensheng Bu for assistance with the DRS measurement.

The correlation between chain adsorption and crystallization was further confirmed by the observation that cold crystallization is highly restricted when the chains are adsorbed onto the AAO wall after annealing. Our extensive experimental data provide a direct relationship between the segmental dynamics and crystallization in 2D confined environments.

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ASSOCIATED CONTENT

S Supporting Information *

The Supporting Information is available free of charge on the ACS Publications website at DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.9b00542.

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Dielectric loss for empty AAO templates; segmental relaxation time of infiltrated PDLLA with thermal protocol P2 and during subsequent heating process; segmental relaxation time of infiltrated PDLLA with thermal protocol P1, P2, and repeated P1; dielectric strength of bulk and infiltrated PDLLA; changes of segmental relaxation time of infiltrated PDLLA during annealing; comparison of the characteristic times in Figures 5c and 3c; and GIWAXS of infiltrated PLLA (PDF)

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REFERENCES

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AUTHOR INFORMATION

Corresponding Author

*E-mail: [email protected]. ORCID

Guoming Liu: 0000-0003-2808-2661 Alejandro J. Müller: 0000-0001-7009-7715 Dujin Wang: 0000-0002-2063-0873 Notes

The authors declare no competing financial interest. G


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