Subject Index

Subject Index

Downloaded by 80.82.77.83 on January 6, 2018 | http://pubs.acs.org Publication Date: January 2, 2004 | doi: 10.1021/bk-2004-0875.ix002

A Acceptance of irradiated foods factors affecting consumer acceptance, 4-5, 335 food industry acceptance, 327 irradiated seafood, consumer acceptance, 160 marketing of irradiated foods, 22-24, 335 Actin(AC), 176, 177/ Adhesives, use in packaging, 216 Aeromonas hydrophila, 92, 93, 158 Alfalfa sprouts antioxidant content, 112 calcium hypochlorite treatment, 94 food-born Salmonella and E. coli outbreaks, 94, 108 germination of irradiated seeds, 111 irradiation, effects on shelf life, 94, 111 Salmonella and E. coli D i values, 93 sensory quality, 113 yield (growth) from irradiated seeds, 112 See also Sprouts Amino acids, irradiation of off-odors, 54, 56* volatile compounds from irradiated amino acids, 51, 54, 56-57, 58f See also Meats, irradiation of Angiostrongyliasis, 15 Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) of U S D A , 6, 119, 328 Anisakis, 159-160 Anthrax (Bacillus anthracis), 315 0

Antioxidants addition to juices, 147 antioxidant capacity of irradiated juices, 141-142 antioxidant capacity of sprouts from irradiated seeds, 112-113 double packaging, 72 effects on color in irradiated meats, 70, 71-72 gallate+a-tocopherol (G+E), 71-72 in polymers, effects of irradiation, 221-223,224/ 263, 266-267, 269-270 in turkey breast, 71-73 Irganox 1010 and 1076, 197-198, 221,223, 224/232 migration, 266-267 reduction of off-odor in irradiated meats, 70-71 sesamol+a-tocopherol (S+E), 71-72 See also Irgafos 168 Apples, 103, 140-141, 144-145 See also Juices Applications of food irradiation, 7, 19*, 328 Ascorbic acid. See Vitamin C Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN), 25 A T B C (acetyl tributyl citrate). See under Plasticizers Atoms for Peace, 183

Bacillus cereus, 93 Barley, 111

345

Komolprasert and Morehouse; Irradiation of Food and Packaging ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2004.

346


C Campylobacter jejuni, 93 Carbon monoxide (CO), 61-62,69* Carotenoids, 113, 129-130 Catfish, 155 Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (CFSAN) (FDA), 4 CFR. See Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Challenges to increased irradiation of food, 334-336 Chicken, irradiated, market tests, 22 Citrus fruits flavonones and flavones in, 124126 gamma irradiation as quarantine treatment for citrus, 119 National Cancer Institute (NCI) recommendations, 120 phenolic compounds in irradiated citrus, 124-125 vitamin C content, 128-129 Clams, 153/, 154 Clementines, 125,128-129 Clostridium botulinum effects of irradiation, 93,94 F D A "zero tolerance" in ready-toeat seafood, 166 in seafood, 158 toxin formation, effects of packaging, 92-93, 94,158 Clostridium perfringens, 93 Cod, 155 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) antioxidants and/or stabilizers for polymers (21 C F R 177.2010), 198 food additive petitions (21 C F R 171.1), 184 food contact notifications (21 C F R 170), 185 general provisions for food irradiation (21 C F R 179.25), 185 ionizing radiation for the treatment

of food (21 C F R 179,26), 8 olefin polymers (21 C F R 177.1520), 198 packaging materials for use during the irradiation of prepackaged food (21 C F R 179.45), 185,197198 regulation of food packaging (21 C F R 179.45), 8 Threshold of Regulation (21 C F R 179.45), 185,187 Codex Alimentarius Commission, 3, 6, 25,334 Codex General Standard for Irradiated Foods, 6 Consumer acceptance. See Acceptance of irradiated foods Corn, 111 Crabmeat, 155 Cuttlefish (squid), 154 Cyclohexane-1,4-dimethanolethylene-terephtalate ( C H D M PETG) co-polyesters. See P E T G copolyesters Cysticercosis, 15

D D E H A [di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate]. See under Plasticizers D E H P [di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate]. See under Plasticizers L-Dehydroascorbic acid (DHA). See Vitamin C Detection of irradiated foods, methods, 3 Dietary concentration (DC). See under Radiolysis products (RP) Double packaging to limit off-odor production, 69-70 turkey breast, 71-73 with antioxidants, effects on color, 70, 72 Dried fish products, 15, 19, 21


347


£ E B F B . See Electron beam fluidized bed (EBFB) processing Electron beam (e-beam) anthrax (Bacillus anthracis) in mail, 315 description, 166 dose maps, 168-169, 172-176, 174176 doses used, 315 energy, 2 mail irradiation, 314-323 microbial inactivation, 169, 170, 172- 176, 174-176 penetration, 168-169, 174 polynomial function for dose absorbed in surimi gels, 173 protein degradation by e-beam, 176, 177/ Ropb RsOej T x> and RsOmax* 168-169, 173- 174 Electron beam fluidized bed (EBFB) processing advantages for insect pest management, 27, 28, 29, 31 comparison to pesticide application, 28 doses used, 31 dosimetry measurements, 31, 33 E B F B velocities, 28,31 effects of treatment at 225 k V , 40/ effects of treatment at 500 k V , 38, 41/ electron penetration, 28-29 endosperm of seed, "protective shielding" of, 28,29 feeder-treatment channel, 29, 30/ growth model predictions, 38,40/41/ impact effect on insects, 31 larval mortality as a function of electron energy, 32/ larval mortality as a fimction of life stages, 31 ma

Rhyzopertha dominica, effects of irradiation, 31, 33-36, 38, 39/ self-shielded 240 k V E B F B system, 29, 30/ Electron spin resonance (ESR), 3 Entrees, irradiated for N A S A , 306 Escherichia coli D values of E. coli, 93, 110-111, 139 F D A regulation, 166 F D A "zero tolerance" in ground meat, 328 food-borne outbreaks of E. coli 0157:H7, 94, 108, 139,183, 330 in produce, effect of irradiation, 9 3 94, 96 in seafood, 159 recovery after irradiation, 95 Ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymers (EVA), 194*, 198-199 Ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymer (EVOH) absorbed energy and bond conversion at 10 kGy treatment, 207-208 free radicals, 210-212 general formula, 206/ oxygen barrier properties, 216 post ionization chemical events, 210 radiolysis products, 229, 230/ theoretical ceiling for compounds produced by ionization, 206-207 upper concentration for direct chemical products of ionization, 208-209 vinyl alcohol interpolation into H D P E , 205 1 0

F A O . See Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) F C N . See Food contact notifications (FCN)



348 FCS. See Food contact substances (FCS) F D A . See U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) F D A Modernization Act of 1997 ( F D A M A ) , 184 Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act ( F D & C Act), 184-185 See also U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Federal Meat Inspection Act, 6 Fermented pork sausage (Nham), 19, 21,23 Ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP)assay, 112, 142 Fibroblast growth factor (FGF-1), 128 Flavonoids characteristics, 124 cinnamate hydroxylase, in phenylalanine conversion, 121 p-coumarate:CoA ligase, in phenylalanine conversion, 121 flavonol, structure, 125/ flavonols in onion, 121 flavonone, 124,125/ 126,127/ hesperidin, 124, 126/ human consumption, 120 naringin, 124,125/ narirutin, 124,125/ nobiletin, 124, 126/ occurrence of flavonoids, 120 phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), 121, 124-125, 126 phenylalanine as a precursor, 121 quercetin dietary sources, 121 effect of gamma irradiation on aglycone and quercetin content in onions, 122 effect of gamma irradiation on quercetin content in onions, 124 glycoside absorption in intestines, 121-122, 123 human consumption, 120 quercetin-3-glucoside (Q3G), 123

SGLT1 sodium-dependent glucose/galactose transporter, 123 structure, 125/ structure and synthesis, 120-121, 125/ tangeretin, 124,126/ Food additive petitions Code of Federal Regulations (21 C F R 171.1), 184 differences from food contact notifications, 185 F D & C Act, Section 409, 184 irradiation dose of ready-to-eat foods, 113-114 irradiation of seafood, 160 Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 2-3 Food-borne pathogens and diseases cost to industry from outbreaks, 328329, 331 F D A approval of irradiation for pathogen control, 7 food-born E. coli outbreaks, 94,108, 139,183,330 food-born Salmonella outbreaks, 91, 94, 108,139 food-borne illnesses from L. monocytogenes, 78 incidence, 139,166 increased ability to detect outbreaks, 331-332 juice-related disease outbreaks, 139 produce-related disease outbreaks, 91-92,94, 108 See also specific foods; specific microorganisms Food contact notifications (FCN) differences from food additive petitions, 185, 187 F D A Modernization Act of 1997 ( F D A M A ) , Section 309, 184 requirements for FCNs (21 C F R 170), 185 Food contact substances (FCS), definition, 184-185



349 Food Irradiation Coalition, 7 Food packaging materials. See Packaging materials, approval by F D A ; Packaging of irradiated foods; Polymers Food safety, 2-3, 30, 329 Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) of U S D A , 6, 78 Formaldehyde (FA), 142-143 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), 279 Free radicals ethylene and vinyl alcohol copolymer (EVOH), 210-212 long-lived radicals in H D P E , effects on Irgafos 168 (PI), 281 production by ionizing radiation, 118-119,143, 146, 203 reactions in polymers, 211-212, 213 survival time in polymers, 210-211 See also Ionization reactions of polymers Fresh-cut or minimally processed (MP) fruits and vegetables aroma, effects of irradiation, 99-100 calcification, 101, 103 color, effects of irradiation, 100, 102/ definition, 91 effective radiation dose for microorganisms, 93-94 electrolyte leaking, effects of irradiation, 100 enzyme activity, effects of irradiation, 98-99 ethylene production, effects of irradiation, 97-98, 103 flavor, effects of irradiation, 99-100 growth of psychrotrophic organisms, 92 modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), 92,94, 100-101 pathogenic organisms, effects of irradiation, 96 preservation by refrigeration, 92, 94 produce-related disease outbreaks, 91-92, 94, 108

recovery of microorganisms after irradiation, 95 respiration rates, effects of irradiation, 97-98,99 shelf-life, effects of irradiation, 9697 shelf-life, general trends, 91 texture, effects of irradiation, 99 warm water dips, 101,102/ wound response after irradiation, 9 7 98 Fruit flies gamma irradiation as quarantine treatment for citrus, 119 Mexican fruit fly [Anastrepha ludens (Loew)], 119 Oriental fruit fly (Bactocerlus dorsalis), 16, 25-26, 119 Fruits, fresh-cut or minimally processed. See Fresh-cut or minimally processed (MP) fruits and vegetables

G Gamma rays effect on PE, PP, and PS products in contact with food, 267-272 effect on quercetin content in onions, 122,124 energy, 2 F D A approval of gamma radiation of fruits and vegetables, 119 quarantine treatment for citrus, -119 stabilization of polyethylene by antioxidants, 266-267 sterilization of food packaging materials, 263 Garlic, 15,19, 20 Gas chromatography (GC) detection of irradiated foods, 3 gas chromatography with flame ionization detector (GC-FID), 239-240



350 gas chromatography with mass selective detection ( G C - M S D ) , 217,219 GIPs. See Good Irradiating Practices (GIPs) GMPs. See Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs) Gnathostomiasis, 15 Good Irradiating Practices (GIPs), 3 Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs), 3 Government regulations, 5, 22 See also Code of Federal Regulations (CFR); Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act ( F D & C Act); U.S. Food and Drug Administration; U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, 153-154 Granary weevils (Sitophilus granarius), 28 Grapefruits carotene in, 129-130 flavones, 125-126 flavonone in, 124,126,127/ flavor changes from irradiation, 131 naringin in, 124, 126 narirutin in, 124, 126 peel injury from irradiation, 130 postharvest treatment with vapor heat (VH) or fungicides, 130, 131 preharvest treatment with gibberellic acid(GA), 130, 131 quality, effects of irradiation, 130131 titratable acidity (TA), 130-131 total soluble solids (TSS), 130-131 vitamin C content, 128-129 Gray (Gy), definition, 118,183

H D P E . See High-density polyethylene (HDPE) Headspace gas chromatography(HSGC) analytical methods, 219-220,239 E V O H radiolysis products, 229, 230/ P E T G co-polyesters, 227, 228/ polyamide 6I/6T, 229,230*, 231/ polyethylene terephthalate (PET), 241,242/-243/244* polystyrene (PS), 244-245, 246/249/ propylene (PP), 245,250, 251*, 252/255/ standards, 217, 218 volatile radiolysis products in polyethylene (PE), 267-268 Hesperidin, 124,126/ High-density polyethylene (HDPE) antioxidants, effects of irradiation, 221-223,224/ diversity of compounds following ionization, 205 long-lived radicals in H D P E , effects on Irgafos 168,281,285-286 radiolysis products, 221-223,224/ 232-233 See also Ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymer (EVOH); Polyethylene (PE) High-dose irradiation, definition, 7, 138 High performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection ( H P L C D A D ) , 217,219 with mass selective detection ( H P L C - M S D S ) , 217, 218-219

I H Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP), 139, 330, 331

I A E A . See International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Insect infestations, 15-16



351 Insects, control by irradiation, 20, 27, 28 See also Fruit flies International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), 2-3, 16-17 International Consultative Group on Food Irradiation (ICGFI), 6, 25 International Research Coordination Meetings (RCM) for High-Dose Packaging, 312 Ion-pair formation, 204 Ionization reactions of polymers absorbed energy and bond conversion in E V O H , 207-208 diversity of compounds following ionization, 205,212 free radicals, 210-212 post ionization chemical events, 210 theoretical ceiling for compounds produced by ionization, 206-207, 208-209,212 See also Free radicals Ionizing radiation degree of absorption, calculation, 298 effects on matter, 2,118 energy, 2 energy transfer by secondary interactions, 203 free radical production, 118-119, 143, 146,203 gray (Gy), definition, 118, 183 history of use in food preservation, 2, 118 major changes produced in polymers, 291 rad, definition, 118 sources and types of irradiation, 2, 151,183 See also High-dose irradiation; Lowdose irradiation Irgafos 168 [tris (2,3-di-ter/butylphenyl) phosphite] (PI) conversion to other chemical species, 283,286

conversion to phosphate (PA) by H 0 , 279 conversion to phosphate (PA) in irradiated H D P E , 281 long-lived radicals in H D P E , effects of, 281, 283, 285-286 molar concentrations of PI and P A as a function of absorbed dose, 283, 285/ post-irradiation storage time, effects of, 282-285 radiolysis products in H D P E , 221, 223,224/ 232 radiolysis products in L D P E , 168, 193/, 197 radiolysis products in PE, 168,269 radiolysis products in PP, 168, 194/, 197-198,245,250,251/, 270 structure of Irgafos 168 (PI), 279 2

2

Joint Expert Commission on Food Irradiation, 166 Juices acetaldehyde formed by irradiation, 142, 145 addition of antioxidants, 147 antioxidant capacity of irradiated juices, 141-142 ascorbic acid (AA) loss by irradiation, 142-143,147 color changes in irradiated juices, 140-141,147 combined heat and irradiation processing, 146 combined low temperature and irradiation processing, 146-147 F D A regulations for juice processing, 139 flavor changes of irradiated juices, 144-145 formaldehyde (FA) formed by irradiation, 142-143


352 inactivation of pathogens, 139-140, 145 malondialdehyde ( M D A ) formed by irradiation, 142-143, 146-147 shelf life of irradiated juices, 142 tetrahydrofuran (THF) in, 143-144, 145 thermal pasteurization, 139 volatile compounds in, 145


L Labeling of irradiated foods and ingredients, 4, 335 Larger grain borer (Prostephanus truncatus), 28 L D P E . See Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) Legal issues. See Code of Federal Regulations (CFR); Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act ( F D & C Act); U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Lentils, 111, 112 Lesser grain borer (Rhyzopertha dominica) emergence, 33, 3 7 / fecundity after irradiation, 38, 39/ growth model predictions, 38,40/41/ life stages, 29, 32/ mortality due to E B F B impact, 31 mortality from phosphine fumigation, 31* penetration into grain kernel, 28 survival after irradiation, 31, 3 3 36 Lettuce, iceberg, 98, 103 Lipid oxidation aldehyde production after irradiation, 47,48/ arachidonic acid, linolenic acid, and fish oil oxidation after irradiation, 47, 48/ cooked pork patties, 46,47/

effects of aerobic conditions, 45,46, 48 gallate+a-tocopherol (D+E), prevention of lipid oxidation, 71 hydrogen peroxide changes during post-irradiation storage, 47 in high-fat irradiated fish, 152, 155 irradiation of meats, 45-48 prooxidants, 46 ready-to-eat (RTE) meat products, 82 sesamol+a-tocopherol (S+E), prevention of lipid oxidation, 71 T B A R S of vacuum- and aerobically packaged irradiated raw pork, 4 5 46 temperature, effects of, 46 Listeria monocytogenes Dio values of L. monocytogenes, 8081,93 elimination by citric acid, heat, and irradiation, 84-85 F D A "zero tolerance" in ready-to-eat foods, 166,328 food-borne illnesses, 78 FSIS policy for in R T E meat products, 78 growth at refrigeration temperatures, 78,92,94 in produce, effect of irradiation, 93, 96 in seafood, 158-159 incidence, 78-79 mechanism of lethality of ionizing radiation, 81, 82/ ready-to-eat meat products, 78-79 recalls of R T E meat products, 78/, 79 resistance to modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), 92 serotypes, 79 Lobsters, 155 Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) atmosphere, effects of, 188 1.3-di-/er/-butylbenzene from Irgafos 168,193/, 197 2.4- di-/er/-butylphenol from Irgafos 168,193/



353 radiolysis products, 193* temperature during irradiation, effects of, 189-190 See also Polyethylene (PE) Low-dose irradiation advantages, 152,156 antioxidant changes in juices, 141142 color changes in juice, 140-141 definition, 7, 138 fruit juices, low-dose irradiation, 139-147 human pathogen inactivation, 139140 patulin destruction, 140 seafood, low-dose pasteurization, 156-160 shelf life changes in juices, 142 Vibrio cholera in seafood, response to irradiation, 158*

M Mail, irradiation of chemical degradation, 320-322 color changes of paper, 316, 318, 322 doses of electron beam radiation used, 315, 316 ductility changes in paper, 318-320 inks, effects of irradiation, 316, 318 irradiation procedure used by post office, 315-316 moisture damage, 316, 322, 323 photographic emulsions, thermal damage, 317 polystyrene, thermal damage, 317 spunbonded olefin, thermal damage, 317 tensile strength changes in paper, 316,318 thickness of irradiated packages, effects of, 315, 317, 323 types of damage in irradiated mail, 315,322-323

Malondialdehyde ( M D A ) , 142-143, 146-147 Mangoes, 125, 129 Meats, irradiation of color changes in irradiated meats CIE color values of turkey breast, 59, 60*, 83-84 consumer perceptions of color changes, 44, 59 correlation between color values and other factors in turkey breast, 69* effects of packaging on red color in irradiated pork, 59 effects of p H and hydroxide ion, 70 factors influencing color changes, 57 gallate+a-tocopherol (G+E), reduction of red color by, 72 red color in meats from C O myoglobin (CO-Mb) complexes, 61-62 reduction of red color by citric and ascorbic acids, 70 sesamol+a-tocopherol (S+E), reduction of red color by, 72 T B A R S and color values of turkey meat treated with different packaging and antioxidants, 7 1 72 off-odor production in irradiated meats antioxidants, reduction of off-odor, 70-71 decrease with time in aerobically packaged meats, 49-51 descriptions of irradiation odor, 4 8 49, 54 double-packaging to limit off-odor production, 69-70 methionine as a source of off-odor, 54, 56* sulfur-containing compounds, 4 9 51,52*, 54 volatiles of aerobically packaged chicken, 49



354 volatiles of aerobically packaged pork, 49-51 volatiles of vacuum-packaged pork, 51,52/ See also Lipid oxidation; Oxidationreduction potential (ORP) of irradiated meats; Pork, irradiation of; Poultry, irradiation of Medical devices, sterilization of, 9 Medium-dose irradiation, 7 Melon fly (Dacus curcubitae), 16 Mexican fruit fly (Anastrepha ludens (Loew)), 119 Migration in irradiated packaging materials additives and antioxidants in packaging films, 260 migration of low molecular weight chemicals in P E T G co-polyesters, 225, 226/, 232 non-volatile and semi-volatile chemicals in migration solutions, 219 See also Plasticizers Minimally processed (MP) fruits and vegetables. See Fresh-cut or minimally processed (MP) fruits and vegetables Modern food systems, characteristics, 332-333 Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), 92, 94, 100-101 Multilayer pouches burst strength test, 311 coextruded laminated test pouches laminate structure, 306, 308/-309/ Meade and abuse tests, 310-311 tensile strength testing, 309-310 visible defects, 309 container abuse tests, 310 drop and vibration tests, 310 Meade test for leaks, 310, 311 proposed laminate for high-dose packaging, 312 proposed nanocomposite films, 312 Quad retort laminated pouches

freezing, effects of, 311 high-dose irradiation, effects of, 311-312 laminate structure, 306,307/ Meade and abuse tests, 310-311 tensile strength, 309, 311-312 use by N A S A , 305, 306, 313 use for Meal, Ready to Eat (MRE) entrees, 305,306,312-313 visible defects, 309 South African laminated pouches laminate structure, 307/ Meade and abuse tests, 310-311 tensile strength testing, 309 visible defects, 309 tensile strength testing, 309-310 visual inspection, 309 See also Packaging of irradiated foods Mung beans annual production, spoilage, and use in Thailand, 15 irradiation of, 19, 20 nutritional quality, 113 sensory acceptability of irradiated beans, 113 yield and growth of sprouts from irradiated seeds, 112 Myoglobin, 61-62, 65/ Myosin heavy chain (MHC), 176, 177/

N Naringin, 124, 125/ Narirutin, 124, 125/ N A S A (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), 305, 306, 313 Natick Laboratories, U.S. Army, 152, 312 National Center for Food Safety and Technology (NCFST), 187 Nobiletin, 124, 126/ Nylon 6, 194/, 199


355


O O A E P . See Office of Atomic Energy for Peace (OAEP) Off-odor production in irradiated meats. See under Meats, irradiation of Office of Atomic Energy for Peace (OAEP) (Thailand), 16-17,18*, 1921 Onions, irradiation of annual onion production, spoilage, and use in Thailand, 15 effect of gamma irradiation on quercetin content, 122, 124 market tests of irradiated onion, 23 sensory quality, 119 sprout inhibition by irradiation, 1920 Opisthorchiasis, 15 Oranges, 124,131,140-141,144 Oriental fruit fly (Bactocerlus dorsalis), 16,25-26, 119 ORP. See Oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) of irradiated meats Oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) of irradiated meats, 62-63, 69,70 Oysters, irradiation of, 151,153*, 154, 157

P Packaging materials, approval by F D A historical background, 183-184, 306 sterilization with ionizing radiation, 237-238 use during irradiation of prepackaged foods, 185, 186*, 215-216 See also Code of Federal Regulations (CFR); Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FD&C Act); Multilayer pouches; Polymers; U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Packaging of irradiated foods

CIE color values of turkey breast with different packaging, irradiation, and storage, 59, 60* double packaging and additive combinations, 70-73 double-packaging to limit off-odor production, 69-70 effects of meat condition, irradiation, time, and packaging on off-odor production, 51, 53* effects of packaging on red color in irradiated pork, 59 effects of raw-meat packaging, irradiation, and cooked-meat packaging on lipid oxidation in pork, 46,47* off-odor decrease in aerobically packaged meats, 49-51 ORP of turkey breast meat with different packaging, irradiation, and storage, 62-63 sulfur compounds and aldehydes of turkey breast with different packaging and antioxidants, 72-73 T B A R S and color values of turkey meat treated with different packaging and antioxidants, 71-72 T B A R S of vacuum- and aerobically packaged pork, 45-46 volatiles of aerobically packaged chicken, 49 volatiles of aerobically packaged pork, 49-51 volatiles of vacuum-packaged pork, 51,52* See also Multilayer pouches Papaya, effects of irradiation, 127-128 Pasteurization "cold pasteurization" by irradiation, 291, 301-302 juices, by thermal pasteurization, 139 seafood, by low-dose irradiation, 156-160 surimi seafood, thermal pasteurization methods, 166 Pathogenic microorganisms



356 emerging pathogens, timeline, 183 human pathogens isolated from seeds and sprouts, 108 in fresh-cut or minimally processed (MP) fruits and vegetables, 91-92, 94, 96 in juice products, 139-140 in seafoods, 156-160 See also specific organisms Patulin, 140 PE. See Polyethylene (PE) Pectin, 127-128 Pesticides, compared to E B F B processing, 28, 29, 31 P E T G co-polyesters [cyclohexane-1,4dimethanol-ethylene-terephtalate ( C H D M - P E T G ) co-polyesters] acetaldehyde concentration, 227 2-methyl-1,3-dioxolane concentration, 227 migration of low molecular weight chemicals, 225, 226*, 232 radiolysis products, 225 semi-volatile radiolysis products, 226 volatile radiolysis products, 226-227, 228/ 229 See also Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) Pharmaceutical products, sterilization of, 9 Phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), 121, 124-125, 126 Phosphine, 29,31 Plasticizers analytical methods for plasticizers, 293 A T B C (acetyl tributyl citrate), 291, 300-301 characteristics, 291 D E H A [di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate] migration, effect of fat, 297-298, 302 migration, proposed E U limit for, 295,298 migration, safety concerns, 302

migration into meat from irradiated P V C films, 295-298 migration into olive oil from irradiated P V C films, 294-295, 299-300 toxicity, 291,302 irradiation experiments, 292-293 proposed E U limit for migration into food, 295, 298 toxicity, 291, 302 See also Migration in irradiated packaging materials; Polymers Polyamide 6,231 Polyamide 6I/6T (poly-hexamethylene isophthalamide/hexamethylene terephthalamide), 229,230*, 231/ Polyethylene (PE) additives and related chemicals, 269, 270* degradation due to radiation, 278 1.3- di-*er*-butylbenzene, 269 2.4-di-*er*-butylphenol, 269 effects of gamma irradiation on antioxidants, 266-267,269-270 P E model films, 272, 273* stabilization against gamma irradiation by antioxidants, 266267 volatile radiolysis products, 267-268, 269, 270* See also High-density polyethylene (HDPE); Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) acetaldehyde, 241,244* 1,3-dioxalane, 241,244* 2-methyl- 1,3-dioxalane, 241, 244* monoethyl ester of terephthalic acid, 221,222/ radiolysis products, 193*, 221, 222/ 232 volatile compounds, 241, 242/-243/ 244* See also P E T G co-polyesters Polymers chain scission, 188



357 crosslinking due to radiation, 8-9, 188 degradation due to radiation, 8-9, 233,278 exposure to radiolysis products from irradiated polymers, 192, 193/195/, 197/ free radical reactions in polymers, 210-212,213 major changes produced by irradiation, 291 See also Ionization reactions of polymers; Packaging materials, approval by F D A ; Plasticizers; Polystyrene (PS); specific polymers Polyolefins. See High-density polyethylene (HDPE); Low-density polyethylene (LDPE); Polyethylene (PE); Polyethylene terephthalate (PET); Polypropylene (PP) Polypropylene (PP) additives and related chemicals, 270, 271/ 1.3-di-/er/-butylbenzene, 194/, 245, 250, 251/, 270 2.4- di-/er/-butylphenol, 194/, 245, 250, 251/, 270 PP model films, 272, 274, 275/ radiolysis products, 194/, 245 sensory evaluation of irradiated yogurt cups, 240,250, 260 time after irradiation, effects of, 190 volatile compounds, 245, 250, 251/, 252/-255/ 268 Polystyrene (PS) acetophenone in, 244 additives and related chemicals, 271/, 272 damage by irradiation of mail, 317 ethylbenzene in, 244, 269 headspace gas chromatography(HSGC), 244-245 PS model sheets, 274, 275/ radiolysis products, 193/, 269

sensory evaluation of irradiated yogurt cups, 240, 250, 251/, 260 styrene in, 244, 269 use during irradiation of prepackaged food, 185, 186/ volatile compounds, 244-245, 246/249/ Polyvinyl chloride) (PVC), 195/, 216 Pork, irradiation of effects of packaging on color, 59 factors affecting volatile production, 53/ fermented pork sausage (Nham), 19 lipid oxidation, 45-48 T B A R S of vacuum- and aerobically packaged pork, 45-46 volatiles of aerobically packaged pork, 49-51 volatiles of vacuum-packaged pork, 51,52/ Porous layer open tubular (PLOT) chromatograms, 227, 228/ 229, 230/ Potatoes, irradiation of, 19, 110,128, 129, 263 Poultry, irradiation of absorbance spectra of meat drips from irradiated turkey breast, 64 CO-myoglobin (CO-Mb) complexes in turkey breast meat, 61-62 C O production in irradiated turkey breast, 61/ color conversion in turkey breast meat, mechanism, 67 color in turkey breast, 44, 59, 60/, 61-62, 83-84 consumer perceptions of color and odor changes, 44, 86 correlation between color values, irradiation dose, storage time, C O , ORP, and T B A R S , 67, 69/ double-packaging to limit off-odor production, 69-70 elimination of L. monocytogenes in R T E turkey, 84-85 off-odors from irradiation, 44



358 ORP of turkey breast meat with different packaging, irradiation, and storage, 62, 63* reflectance spectra of irradiated turkey breast, 65-67 volatile sulfur compounds, 72-73, 82-83, 85/ 86 volatiles of aerobically packaged chicken, 49 See also Meats, irradiation of Poultry Inspection Act, 6 PP. See Polypropylene (PP) Prooxidants, 46 Psychrotrophic organisms. See Aeromonas hydrophila; Listeria monocytogenes; Yersinia enterocolitica

Q Quarantine fruit exports from Thailand, 16, 25 gamma irradiation as quarantine treatment for citrus, 119 melon fly (Dacus curcubitae), 16 Oriental fruit fly (Bactocerlus dorsalis), 16 Oriental fruit fly (Bactocerlus dorsalis), quarantine restrictions, 16 quarantine security for agricultural products, 329 U S D A - A P H I S regulations for irradiation as quarantine treatment, 328 Quercetin dietary sources, 121 effect of gamma irradiation in onions, 122,124 glycoside absorption in intestines, 121-122, 123 human consumption, 120 quercetin-3-glucoside (Q3G), 123 SGLT1 sodium-dependent glucose/galactose transporter, 123

structure, 125/ See also Flavonoids

R Rad, definition, 118 Radiolysis products (RP) acetic acid, 199 atmosphere, effects of, 188-189 chain scission, 188 crosslinking, 8-9, 176, 188 2,4-di-*er*-butylphenol (2,4-DTBP), 193*, 194*, 197,198,245,250-251 dietary concentrations (DC) from irradiated polymers, 192,193*, 196,197* dose effects, 188,189 equivalence of radiolysis products from different radiation sources, 183, 187 ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymers (EVA), 194*, 198-199 ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymer (EVOH), 229, 230/ exposure to radiolysis products from irradiated polymers, 192, 193*195*, 197* food simulants, use in testing, 191 high-density polyethylene (HDPE), 221-223,224/232-233 Irgafos 168 in H D P E , 221,223, 224/ 232 Irgafos 168 in L D P E , 193*, 197 Irgafos 168 in PE, 269, 270* Irgafos 168 i n P P , 194*, 197-198, 245,250,251*, 270 Irganox 1010 and 1076, 221,223, 224/ 232 low-density polyethylene (LDPE), 193* Nylon 6, 194*, 199 pentanamide from Nylon 6,199 P E T G co-polyesters, 225, 226-227, 228/ 229 radiolysis products, 225



359 polyamide 6,231 polyamide 6I/6T, 229, 230f, 231/ polyethylene (PE), 267-268 poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET), 193*, 221,222/232 polymer adjuvants, 197-198 polypropylene (PP), 194*, 268 polystyrene (PS), 193*, 269 polyvinyl chloride) (PVC), 195* primary radiolysis effects, 2, 118119 propionic acid, 199 reasons for reevaluating dietary exposure, 187 RPs with exposures greater than 0.5 ppb D C , 197-199 RPs with exposures less than 0.5 ppb D C , 196-197 secondary effects of ionizing radiation, 2 temperature, effects of, 189-190 time after irradiation, effects of, 190 Radish sprouts, 94, 111 Ready-to-eat (RTE) meat products consumer perceptions of color and odor change, 86 lipid oxidation, 82 Listeria monocytogenes, elimination of, 84-85 Listeria monocytogenes, FSIS policy, in R T E meat products, 78 Listeria monocytogenes contamination, 78-79 R T E meat formulations, 80 volatile sulfur compounds (VCSs), 82-83, 85/ 86 Recalls of contaminated food E. coli 0157:H7 in ground meat products, 330 E. coli 0157:H7 in R T E meat products, 330 L. monocytogenes in R T E meat products, 78*, 79 Red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum), 28, 31*

Regulation of food irradiation and packaging, 5, 22 See also Code of Federal Regulations (CFR); Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act ( F D & C Act); U.S. Food and Drug Administration; U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Rhyzopertha dominica. See Lesser grain borer (Rhyzopertha dominica) Rice, 1 1 1 Rice weevils (Sitophilus Oryzae), 28, 29,31,32/ R T E meat products. See Ready-to-eat (RTE) meat products

Salmon, 152, 156 Salmonella Devalues, 93,110-111, 139-140 food-borne outbreaks, 91, 94,108, 139 in seafood, 159 in sprouts, 109 recovery after irradiation, 95 Scallops, 154 SDS-polyacrylamide electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE), 3, 170-171, 176, 177/ Seafood, irradiation of Aeromonas hydrophila, 158 Bureau of Commercial Fisheries (BCF), 152 catfish, 155 clams, 153*, 154 Clostridium botulinum, 158 cod, 155 color changes, 152 consumer acceptance of irradiated seafood, 160 crabmeat, 155 Crustacea, 155

cuttlefish (squid), 154


360 effects on spoilage microorganisms, 154-156 Enterococci, 159 Escherichia coli 159 finfish, freshwater, 155-156 finfish, marine, 153*, 155 historical perspective, 152 lipid oxidation in high-fat fish, 152, 155 Listeria monocytogenes, 158-159 lobsters, 155 Marine Products Development Irradiator (MPDI), 152 National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), 152 optimum irradiation doses, 152,153* oysters, 151, 153*, 154, 157 parasites, 159-160 pathogenic bacteria in seafoods, 156160 salmon, 152, 156 Salmonella, 159 scallops, 154 shelf life of irradiated seafood, 152, 153*, 154 shellfish, 154-155 shrimp, market tests of irradiated, 22 shrimp, shelf life, 152, 153*, 155 Staphylococcus aureus, 159 sterilization by irradiation, 152 Streptococcus faecalis, 159 Vibrio cholera in seafood, response to irradiation, 158* Vibrio spp. in seafood, 156, 157/ viruses, 159 See also Surimi seafood Seeds chemical decontamination of seeds, 109-110 contamination of seeds, 108-109 germination of irradiated seeds, 111 human pathogens isolated from seeds or sprouts, 108 irradiation doses for sprout seeds, 110


t

Salmonella and E. coli Djo values, 110 yield ratio of irradiated seeds, 111112 See also Sprouts Shellfish, 154-155 Shrimp, 22,152, 153*, 155 Soybeans, 111, 112 Sprouts antioxidant capacity, 112-113 ascorbic acid content, 112 carotenoid content, 113 chemical disinfection, 110 contamination of sprout seeds, 108109 irradiation doses for sprout seeds, 110 nutritional quality, 112-113 Salmonella and E. coli in, 108, 109, 110-111 yield ratio of irradiated seeds, 111112 See also Alfalfa sprouts; Mung beans; Radish sprouts; Seeds; Soybeans Staphylococcus aureus, 166,174-176 Sterilization "cold sterilization" of foods by irradiation, 291,302 gamma irradiation for sterilization of food packaging materials, 263 medical devices, 9 packaging materials, F D A approval of, 237-238 seafood, 152 Streptococcus faecalis, 159, 170 Sulfiir compounds, volatile. See Volatile sulfur compounds (VCSs) Surimi seafood actin(AC), 176, 177/ color changes from irradiation, 167, 171 dose maps for e-beam, 172-176 electron penetration by e-beam, 168169



361 microbial inactivation by e-beam, 169, 170,172-176 myosin heavy chain (MHC), 176, 177/ polynomial function for e-beam dose absorbed, 173 predictive models of microbial inactivation, 170, 174-176 preparation of surimi gel from pollock, 167-168 protein crosslinking, 176 protein degradation by e-beam, 176, 177/ protein-protein interactions, 170171 Ropb ^50e» and RsOmax, 168-169, 173-174 shear stress changes from electron beam irradiation, 172 Staphylococcus aureus inactivation by e-beam, 174-176 texture changes from electron beam irradiation, 167-168 thermal pasteurization methods, 166 See also Seafood, irradiation of Sweet tamarind, 24

Tangeretin, 124, 126/ T B A R S (2-thiobarbituric acid reactive substances), 45-46,47*, 67, 69*, 71-72 Tetrahydrofuran (THF), 143-144, 145 Thai irradiation center (TIC), 21 Thailand dried fish products, 15, 19, 21 export of irradiated foods, 25-26 fermented pork sausage (Nham), 19, 21 garlic, 15,19,20 government regulation and approval of irradiated food, 22, 24-25 insect infestations in fruit, 15-16

international marketing of irradiated foods, 24-26 losses of agricultural products, 15 market tests of irradiated foods, 2 2 24 mung beans, 15, 19, 20 Office of Atomic Energy for Peace (OAEP), 16-17, 19* onions, 15, 19-20 potatoes, 19 quarantine of fruit exports, 16, 25 Tomatoes, 103 Total ion chromatograms (TICs), 221, 222/ 223/ 224/ Trade in irradiated foods Brazilian products, 328 export of irradiated foods from Thailand, 25-26 Hawaiian produce, 328 specialty food products, 25, 328 World Trade Organization, 6, 334 Trichinosis, 15

U United States Postal Service (USPS). See Mail, irradiation of U.S. Army, 152, 183,312 U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), 183 U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval of gamma radiation of fruits and vegetables, 119 F D A Modernization Act of 1997 ( F D A M A ) , 184 food packaging regulations (21 C F R 179.45), 8 Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP), 139, 330 irradiated entrees prepared for N A S A , approval of, 306 irradiated foods approved for pathogen control, 7



362 irradiation of unprocessed red meat and meat products, 7 labeling requirements, irradiated foods and ingredients, 4 labeling requirements, unprocessed juice products, 139 Office of Food Additive Safety, 214, 215 patulin, maximum limit in juice, 140 petition for irradiation dose of 4.5 kGy on ready-to-eat foods, 113114 petition for irradiation of seafood, 160 recommendation for calcium hypochlorite treatment of alfalfa sprouts, 94 regulations for juice processing, 139 requirement for 5-log reduction of pathogens in juice, 139 warnings about risks of eating sprouts, 108 See also Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (CFSAN) (FDA); Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act; Packaging materials, approval by F D A U V stabilizers, 266

Vegetables, fresh-cut or minimally processed. See Fresh-cut or minimally processed (MP) fruits and vegetables Vibrio F D A "zero tolerance" in ready-to-eat seafood, 166 in seafood, effects of irradiation, 156, 157/ 158* Vitamin C ascorbic acid (AA) in sprouts from irradiated seeds, 112 L-dehydroascorbic acid (DHA), 128, 142

effects of irradiation, 128-129, 138, 142-143,147 reduction of red color in irradiated meats, 70 Volatile compounds in irradiated foods factors affecting volatile production in pork, 53* in juice products, 145 odor, 54, 55* sulfur compounds in turkey, 72-73, 82-83, 85/ 86 sulfur-containing compounds from meats, 49-51,52* volatile compounds from irradiated amino homopolymers, 54, 55* volatiles from amino acid homopolymers in liposomes, 54, 56-57, 58* volatiles of aerobically packaged chicken, 49 volatiles of aerobically packaged pork, 49-51 volatiles of vacuum-packaged pork, 51,52* Volatile compounds in irradiated polymers P E T G co-polyesters, 226-229 polyamide 6, 231 polyamide 6I/6T, 229, 230*, 231/ polyethylene (PE), 267-268 polyethylene terephthalate (PET), 241, 242/-243/ 244* polypropylene (PP), 268 polystyrene (PS), 244-245, 246/249/ 269 propylene (PP), 245,250, 251*, 2 5 2 / 255/ Volatile sulfur compounds (VCSs) in juice products, 145 in turkey, 72-73, 82-83, 8 5 / 86 production of sulfur-containing volatiles from amino acids, 51, 54 ready-to-eat (RTE) meat products, 82-83


363 sulfur-containing compounds produced by irradiation, 49-51, 52t, 54

X X-rays, energy, 2

Y

World Health Organization (WHO), 2-3,7 World Trade Organization (WTO), 6, 334

Yersinia enterocolitica, 92, 93


W


Subject Index

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