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SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TO MANUSCRIPT PREPARATION' ERNST M. COHN U. S. Bureau of Mines, Washington, D. C.
These conventions should be adopted from the start of a project; othenvise, extensive changes might have to be made later. Of course, other conventions common in the particular field of the project will be noted during the literature search and should be observed as a matter of courtesy and convenience to others. References. Research and development begin with the accumulation of data. Published data are cheap, easier to obtain than original ones, and often the only guide for approaching a problem; hence, review of the literature and maintenance of an information file continue for the duration of a project. These tasks are simplified by keeping each reference on a separate, punched card. Whether or not a punch indexing system is in use a t the start of a project is immaterial. The slightly higher cost of punched cards is negligible compared with the possible expense of GATHERING DATA having to transfer information from one set of cards to Many widely accepted symbols and abbreviations in another when the need for a punch-card index arises. mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering may be A uniform style should be used for citing references found in publications of the American Standards As- at the top of each card. The exact form is largely a sociation, especially under Project Letters Y and Z.2 matter of taste or company regulations. However, a From a paper, "Some mechanical aids for scientific writing long form is preferred that contains all the informaand editing," presented a t the Spring Meeting of Technical tion that could possibly be needed: spelled-out first Writers and Editors, New York City, May 12-13, 1955. names, titles in the original languages, numbers of "American Stsndarda-Price List and Index," Spring, 1955, journal series, dates, and page spans on cards may save pp. 38-39; also, "Style Manual for American Standards," September 15, 1949, pp. 22-25 (American Standards Association, needless labor in the future. While a manuscript is in process, references had best Inc., 70 East 45th Street, New York 17, N. Y.).
T O D A Y , most research culminates in written reports that have little room for digression and entertainment. Except for pleas (propaganda, request for funds, advertisement), technical publications are supposed to be purely informative-neither poetry nor epic prose but clear, concise, logical exposition. The burden of that kind of writing can he lessened by a systematic approach, so that time spent on mechanical steps is minimized. The central theme of this paper, therefore, is standardization or pedantry, not in the derogatory sense but in the reputable meanings of formalism and precision. The following observations were collected from the literature, by word of mouth, and from personal experience. They are arranged approximately in the order in which those problems occur that might needlessly complicate scientific writing and editing.
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be identified by letters in the text and on the pertineut cards. Only after completion of the first draft and choice of publication medium should references be numbered and citations incorporated in the text, with necessary changes in style. Thus, the danger of wrong renumbering is lessened, references are quickly added or deleted, and cards are easily arranged in final order (alphabetic, chronologic, by subject matter, or in order of citation). Secondary references, such as those to abstracting journals, should be cited when original sources were not consulted. The accuracy of references should, of course, be checked in the final manuscript to eliminate errors of transcription. Reference and footnote markings should be inserted a t points where they least disrupt the train of thought. I n order of preference, these are a t ends of paragraphs, ends of sentences, ends of phrases, or-where more than one reference is needed in a phrase-after names of authors. Equipment. Special apparatus may be required during the life of a project. Not only should drawings and blueprints be kept for future reference and possible publication, but photographs should be taken before equipment is installed. At that time it is more ascessible, parts may be photographed before they are permanently concealed, angle shots of details are easier to take, and pictures will be free of confusing background. The presence of people near large apparatus or of measuring sticks near small devices may appear stilted, despite all efforts at spontaneity, but is useful for estimating sizes. Notebooks. Original, unprocessed data should be recorded in ink directly in notebooks. The method of keeping data is often prescribed by companies, especially for patenting purposes. When bound books are used, space should be left in front for a chronological table of contentsAate, topic, page-and in back for an index, for example, names of preparations or numerical sequences of samples, grouped by source of origin. I n a 48-page notebook, two pages in front and two in back usually sufficefor this purpose. Simple, complete entries on such pages can save much time-consuming hunting for data. When many series of data are to be collected, a standard form should be devised beforehand and used consistently. Changes in this form should be made only when substantial advantages result from them. Space might be provided for more data than appear to be necessary a t first. Standardized forms minimize the possibility of omitting needed data. They may sometimes be used directly in manuscripts and, in any case, facilitate calculations and transfer of data t o summarizing tables and graphs. When one person is working on more than one project, he would do well to keep a separate notebook for each project. The cost of paper is much less than that of time spent on untangling data. For the same reason, notes should not be crowded; each experiment deserves a new page.
JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL EDUCATION CORRELATING DATA
The work of correlating and evaluating data may start almost simultaneously with laboratory work and should be largely completed before a manuscript is begun. Because no original data are gathered in this process, loose sheets may be used rather than bound books. They can be kept in inexpensive 3-ring binders and rearranged to suit changing needs. Tables and Pictorial Representations. From the very start, tables, graphs, flowsheets, circuit diagrams, and the like should be laid out with eventual publication in mind. Thus, members of a series should be similar in appearance and as uniform as possible; othenvise the reader is needlessly forced to reorient his thoughts. Each table, no matter how simple and small, should be set on its own page and transferred on a separate page of the manuscript for ease of possible rearrangement as well as typesetting. Aids for Calculation. Standard aids for calculationhandbooks, conversion tables, normal nomograpbs, slide rnles, and calculating machines-need not be discussed here. However, two rather recent developments are possibly not as widely known. One is the circular nomograph, used to calculate liquid and vapor compositions, convert mol to weight fractions, volume to weight and volume t o mol percentages, all for two-component systems. The first such chart appears to have been published by C. R. Frankha A similar one, Nomograph for the Interconversion of Atomic and Weight Per Cent in Binary Systems, was produced a t Battelle Memorial Institute (Columbus, Ohio) which has di~tribut~ed free copies of it. Methods of construction are given by H. D. Baehr' and 0. P. Kharbanda? Another time saver is the Gerber proportionating scale."t has a triangular spring containing 100 calibrated coils that can be extended over a wide range on the scale and thus subdivide any arbitrary distance into 100 equal parts. A round spring with attached calibration discs follows the movement of the triangular one for easier reading. Interpolation, normalization, replotting to different scale moduli, and similar operations can he performed directly from graphs with a minimum of arithmetic. Considerable savings of time appear possible when, for example, antomatically plotted curves are to be evaluated or values are to be interpolated from graphs published in journals and books. Mathematical Expressions. I n mathematical formulas and equations, all symbols must be defined and expressions checked for dimensional homogeneity. Seema FRANKLIN, C. R., C h . Met. Eng., 52, 117 (1945); reprinted in "Manual of Chemicill Engineering Calculations and Shortr cuts," McGran7-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York. BAEHR, H. D., Chem. Zng. Tech.,11,676 (1953). 0.P., Chem. & Process Eng., 35, No. 10, 309 &KHARBANDA, (1954). 6 Gerber Scientific Instrument Co., 162 State Street, Hartford 3, Connecticut.
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ingly obscure errors in calculation sometimes become script. Eventually, notes will have to be pooled and an obvious when dimensional discrepancies are discovered. outline agreed upon. Kothing will be said here about spelling, grammar, After equations have been derived, they should he linearized as far as possible for ease of typing and type- punctuation, and orderly arrangement of material, b e setting. Some authors even go so far as to replace cause guides for scientific writing and style (some of conventional symbols by typewriter characters, for ex- them conflicting in their advice) are abnndant.I0 This ample, an integral sign by "S"; this practice appears section will be limited to a listing of the most common undesirable because it forces the reader to "translate" shortcomings in scientific manuscripts: (1) strings of mentally a new symbol into one with which he is nouns with ambiguous meanings; (2) stock phrases familiar. Certainly, no new symbols should be in- that add useless verbiage; (3) tortuous phrasing to vented for known terms and operations. Unnecessary avoid "I" and "we"; (4) double or triple hedging; (5) symbols, groups, and definitions, which might have unnecessary editorial comments such as "interesting," been convenient for deriving mathematical expressions, "valuable," "new," and "careful"; and (6)misuses such should be removed again from the final manuscript. as "compared to" ("compared with"), "overall" However, some mathematical groupings should be ("over-all"), "if" (confused with "when"), and "seem" named, if possible. For example: (confnsed with "appear"). When these aberrations and fundamental mistakes in English are eliminated, manuscripts are shortened and is a linearized expression which, when frequently cited in become easier to read. a paper, deserves a name, say, "modified mass velocMechanics of Typing. If a first draft of a large ity."' manuscript is needed, it should be triple spaced and Chemical Expressions. Chemical formulas and equa- provided with wide margins. Each heading, no matter tions should he checked for correct stoichiometry, how minor, should he started on a new page, and paraespecially after typing and typesetting. Standard graphs should be completed on the same page on which nomenclature should be used for compounds to facili- they are started, when possible. These precautions pertate indexing and abstracting. Helpful guides put mit major rearrangements to be made with a minimum out by the American Chemical Society include "Direc- of scissor-and-paste work. tions for Abstractors," "The Naming and Indexing of Authors should read every word of the last draft of a Chemical Compounds by Chemical Abstracts," and a paper before submitting it to the editor. At that stage, number of pamphlets on nomenclature relating to errors in spelling and punctuation can he corrected various branches of chemi~try.~ which might cause needless delay and confusion later Templates and rubber stamps are available or can be on. Final typing should, of course, he in the style deprepared for drawing ring systems on paper and manded by the intended recipient, with enough copies stencils. They save a great deal of typewriter gym- for reviewers, for distribution, and for the visitors and nastics and assure even spacing of bonds a t desired colleagues who invariably could use preprints before rebond angle^.^ prints are available. WRITING THE MANUSCRIPT
CONCLUSION
A methodical approach to writing is just as useful as one to experimentation. Methods and gadgets like those discussed eliminate drudgery and allow more time for the tasks of explaining facts, making and (disjproving hypotheses, and showing ways to further advances "'Mathematics in Type," The William Byrd Press, Inc., in scieure and technology. Some effort and experience Richmond, 1954. 8Pamphlets on amino acids, carbohydrates, carotenoid pig- help make the mechanical tasks second nature and perments, silicon compounds, cis and tl-am isomers! geometric iso- mit concentration on more creative problems that are mers, cyclic compounds, vitamins, organic radlcds, hydrogen not as easv to solve because thev are not re~etitive.
A natural start for a manuscript is a rather incoherent flow of ideas, set down on paper just as they occur. This process may take place over any length of time and be carried on by all contributors to a manu-
isotopes and their compounds, and general International Union Commission rulings on organic and inorganic compounds are available from Chemical Abstracts, Ohio State University, Columbus 10, Ohio. Standard templates are sold in college book stores. Some manufacturers are Eugene Dietegen Co., Chicago; Collegiate Mfg. Co., Ames, Iowa; Clay Adams Co., Ne?v Yark. Rubber stamps can be made by local stationery and print shops.
lo For example, SHIDLE, N . G., "Clear Writing for Easy Reading," McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1951; F. KEREKES axo R. WINPREY,"Report Preparation," Iowa Stste College Press, Ames, 1951; J. R. NELSON,"Writing the Technical Report," McGraw-Hill Book Ca., Inc., New York, 1952; G. G. HAWLEY, "Technical Speller," Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York, 1955.
