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Article Cite This: J. Chem. Educ. XXXX, XXX, XXX-XXX

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Teaching Polymer Science in the Department of Polymers at the University of Concepción, Chile: A Brief History Patricio Flores-Morales,* Víctor H. Campos-Requena, Nicolás Gatica, Carla Muñoz, Mónica A. Pérez, Bernabé L. Rivas, Susana A. Sánchez, Mario Suwalsky, Yesid Tapiero, and Bruno F. Urbano Departamento de Polímeros, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad de Concepción, Edmundo Larenas 129, Concepción, Chile S Supporting Information *

ABSTRACT: Polymers are part of our lives; scientists dedicated to polymer science design new materials thinking about more eco-friendly methodologies and satisfying people’s needs. In most universities, polymer science is taught by academics associated with the traditional chemistry departments (organic, analytical, physical, and inorganic chemistry). In this article, we show how polymers are taught in a department specifically dedicated to this topic. We present the history of the Department of Polymers in the Faculty of Chemical Sciences at the University of Concepción (the only department of this type in Chile). Initially, the Department of Polymers offered a few undergraduate and graduate courses; now, polymer science courses at the University of Concepción have become an integral part of the curriculum for seven programspedagogy in chemistry, biochemistry, bioengineering, civil engineering in materials, chemical analysis, chemistry, and civil engineering in chemistry. We discuss the influence of this department in the curricular design of these seven programs at the University of Concepción. We offer a detailed description of the polymer-based courses incorporated into the curriculum of some programs, and we discuss how the numbers of graduate and undergraduate theses involving polymer science have increased at the Faculty of Chemical Sciences since the creation of the Department of Polymers in 1974. KEYWORDS: First-Year Undergraduate/General, Polymer Chemistry, Curriculum, Collaborative/Cooperative Learning

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The goal of getting people to know about polymers depends on teaching about polymers in high schools, colleges, and universities. Some institutions have begun to reorganize the curriculum and the manner in which they teach chemistry.15−18 In the case of polymer science, the question could be more direct: what is being done to include polymers as a major subject in the curriculum of chemistry and chemistry-related programs? There are many examples of tenacious scientists and teachers working hard to fully incorporate the teaching of polymers. A quick review of recent decades19−21 shows that important work has been done. Recent publications22,23 suggest that this intent is a matter of current discussion. The reflections in the following papersWhere Should the Teaching of Materials Science Be Directed?,24 Lengthening the Chain: Polymers in General Chemistry,25 and What Are We Going To Do about a Problem like Polymer Chemistry? Develop New Methods of Delivery To Improve Understanding of a Demanding Interdisciplinary Topic,26are even more interesting.

hroughout our history as human beings, the creation of new materials to meet our needs has been an endless goal. From the first alchemists to the emerging materials scientists, this target has been their lives’ quest.1−3 In that regard, it seems that the sentence “the union makes the force” has led molecules to form one of the most versatile classes of materials of our history: polymers. “Men couldn’t have reached the moon if polymers hadn’t existed” confirms a prolific researcher in the field of polymer−metal ion interactions4−7 at the Department of Polymers (DP) of the University of Concepción (UdeC). As defined in the Oxford English Dictionary8, a polymer is “a substance which has a molecular structure built up chiefly or completely from a large number of similar units bonded together, e.g. many synthetic organic materials used as plastics and resins.” These characteristics, among others, make polymers useful surfaces for industrial applications.9−12 Today, polymers are found in almost everything in our lives: clothes, electronic devices, cars, construction materials, and so on. However, it seems that people are not fully aware of them. “Common people know about synthetic polymers, like plastics” says one of the DP’s founding professors, who conducts his research in membrane−molecule interactions.13,14 “If people browse through the newspaper, they don’t know that it’s partially made of cellulose” he points out. © XXXX American Chemical Society and Division of Chemical Education, Inc.

Special Issue: Polymer Concepts across the Curriculum Received: March 22, 2017 Revised: September 15, 2017

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DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.7b00212 J. Chem. Educ. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX

Journal of Chemical Education

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Biochemistry, Civil Engineering in Chemistry, Pedagogy in Chemistry, Pharmacy, and Biology. Figure 1 shows the numbers of courses offered by the DP since its creation. In the 1980s, there was an increase in the

The Department of Polymers at the University of Concepción was created to focus on both research on and teaching of polymer science. Thus, the focus of this article will be to show the history and experience done by the DP for undergraduate and graduate students and the curricular design for undergraduate students.

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THE DEPARTMENT OF POLYMERS: A HISTORY OF VISIONARY PEOPLE The University of Concepción was founded in 1919 and is located in the Biobió Region in Chile. At that time, there was a positive worldwide evaluation of chemistry as a science for industrial development, and this fact led to the creation of the School of Industrial Chemistry at the UdeC. As time went by, new science-related programs triggered the increase in general chemistry courses taught by the School of Industrial Chemistry. In recognition of the importance of chemistry as a fundamental science, two remarkable events occurred: the creation of the Bachelor’s degree in chemistry in 1954 (in Chile, students study for a Licentiate degreetypically lasting 5 yearswhich in English terminology best equates to the Bachelor’s programs offered), and the establishment of the Central Institute of Chemistry in the late 1950s. The Institute comprised five departments: General Chemistry; Analytical Chemistry; Organic Chemistry; Physical Chemistry; and Geochemistry. The visit by the Nobel Prize Winner Linus Pauling and his wife, Ava Pauling, in 1962 gave the final “push” for the development of chemistry as a science at UdeC. Eckhard Schmidt Harms, a scientist working on polymer synthesis,27 was the first “Bachelor” from the UdeC chemistry program, graduating in 1964. In 1970, he obtained his doctorate in chemistry from the University of Marburg, West Germany. Professor Schmidt then went on to “strongly promote research in the area of polymers; an area where the Institute started to show interest in 1969 with the goal of establishing cooperation agreements between the University [of Concepcion] and the German government, to form a research and teaching group in the field of macromolecular synthetic products”.28 On February 11, 1974, Dr. Schmidt along with a group of researchers in the field of polymers and University authorities created the Department of Polymers. Dr. Schmidt was the first head of the newly created department, whose mission was to “provide the Central Institute of Chemistry with a high impact structure for research into and teaching” of polymers (ref 28, p 55). The DP was the first of its kind to be established in Chile and remains the only one. Alongside the creation of the DP in 1974, the Ph.D. in Sciences with a Minor in Chemistry was also created, which further enhanced research in the field of polymers.

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Figure 1. Numbers of polymer courses taught by the Department of Polymers over the years. Blue line: undergraduate courses. Orange line: graduate courses.

number of undergraduate courses (Figure 1, blue line), which remained almost constant during the 1990s. Entering the new millennium, the number of course offerings increased, peaking at 13 in 2006. Since then, the DP has tried to keep the number of courses available in that range. The titles of the undergraduate courses taught by the Department over the years 1974−2015 are provided in Table 1. A complete list of the courses is presented in Table S1 in the Supporting Information. As was previously mentioned, from 1974 to 1976, four courses were taught by the Department: Chemistry of Macromolecules I, Natural Polymers, Structure and Physical Properties of Polymers, and Polymer Technology. From 1977 to 1979, three new courses were offered (Table 1). As a result of the rise of the petrochemical industry in the Biobió region, the course Chemistry of Synthetic Polymers was mainly offered to Chemistry and Civil Engineering in Chemistry students. The course Elucidation of Protein Structure was an elective course taught for Chemistry, Biochemistry, and Pharmacy students because of the undeniable relationship of these programs to biological macromolecules. Finally, the course Instrumental Methods for Macromolecules was a topic needed for the characterization of the diversity of polymers. In the 1980s, the importance of synthetic polymers was corroborated with the inclusion of the elective course Synthesis and Applications of Polymers for Chemistry and Pharmacy students. On the other hand, in 1982, the relevance of the biological macromolecular structure of proteins and enzymes in living organisms was highlighted with the incorporation of three courses. In 1983, the elective course Structure and Properties of Liquid Crystals satisfied the trends of the time, allowing Chemistry students to have a better understanding of the worldwide chemistry context. In the same year, Macromolecular Chemistry was introduced into the Pedagogy in Chemistry curriculum and Physical Chemistry of Macromolecules as part of the Biochemistry curriculum. Another

A BRIEF HISTORY OF POLYMER COURSES TAUGHT BY THE DEPARTMENT

Undergraduate Courses

One of the aims of the DP was to reinforce teaching about polymers by offering students the possibility to learn from academics actively involved in research. Thus, by teaching of the state of the art in polymer science, the development of the discipline and excellence in teaching was ensured. In 1974, the DP offered four undergraduate and three graduate courses. By the end of the decade, the courses were part of the curriculum of six programs: Chemistry, B



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Diffraction (1992) and Instrumental Methods in Macromolecular Chemistry (1995) were updates of existing courses. Applied Chemical Analysis (1998) was an elective course based on characterization of polymers, mostly plastics. The new millennium brought new challenges for the curricula of some degrees. The worldwide trends of that time are evident with the incorporation of, at first, elective subjects such as Industrial Chemistry of Polymers, Atomic Chemistry of Metals and Nanomaterials, Basic Industrial Chemistry, Macromolecular Physical Chemistry, Introduction to Chemical Sciences, and Chemistry of Materials from 2001 to 2006 (see Table 1). Macromolecular Physical Chemistry has been a fifthsemester core course since 2006 in the Bioengineering curriculum. Chemistry of Materials has been a fourth-semester core course for Civil Engineering in Materials since 2006 and an elective course for Chemistry. Industrial Chemistry of Polymers, originally introduced in 2001, is still a 10th-semester core course in the Chemistry curriculum. Finally, because of the importance polymers have nowadays, in 2015 the Polymers course was also included in the fifth semester of the Chemistry curriculum. This also led to changes in the Chemical Analysis degree, with the course Analysis of Polymeric Materials being added in the sixth semester (the Chemical Analysis degree was created in 1982). For a specific explanation of the incorporation of these courses, see Undergraduate Polymer Courses in Curricular Design below. Thus, it is important to note that nowadays our Faculty of Chemical Sciences has three programs, Chemistry, Chemical Analysis, and Geology, but only Chemistry and Chemical Analysis have polymer courses. As can be seen from Figure 1 (blue line), the undergraduate courses have seen sustained growth over the years. However, a change has been seen since 2003. The number of courses has increased not only because of the change in the chemistryrelated science curriculum but also because of the creation of new career possibilities and the degree schemes to support them, which demanded courses in the polymer field. Finally, it is important to note that the increase in the number of undergraduate courses from 2003 is the Department’s commitment for its former members as well as those from new generations.

Table 1. Distribution of the New Undergraduate Courses Taught by the Department of Polymers, 1974−2015 Year of Creation 1974−1976

1977 1978 1979 1980 1982

1983

1986 1987 1990

1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2005 2006

2015

Name of the Coursea

Areab

Chemistry of Macromolecules Ic Natural Polymersc Structure and Physical Properties of Polymersc Polymer Technologyc Chemistry of Synthetic Polymers Elucidation of Protein Structure Instrumental Methods for Macromolecules Synthesis and Applications of Polymers Three-Dimensional Structure Elucidation through X-ray Diffraction Spatial Architecture of Biological Molecules Primary Structure Elucidation of Proteins and Chemical Modifications of Enzymes Wood Chemistry Structure and Properties of Liquid Crystals Physical Chemistry of Macromolecules Macromolecular Chemistry Vegetable Polymers Research Unit I Research Unit II Biological Chemistry Synthetic Polymers Chemical Adhesives and Additives Determination of Three-Dimensional Structures by X-ray Diffraction Instrumental Methods in Macromolecular Chemistry Applied Chemical Analysis Industrial Chemistry of Polymers Biochemistry III Atomic Chemistry of Metals and Nanomaterials Basic Industrial Chemistryd Macromolecular Physical Chemistry Introduction to Chemical Sciences Chemistry of Materials Polymers Chemistry and Quality of Lifed Analysis of Polymeric Materials

C B A A C B A A C B B A A C C B   B A A C C A A B A A C C A C A A

a

All of the course titles have been translated from the original ones in Spanish. bPolymer course areas: C, core polymer science; B, biopolymer science; A, applied polymer science. cThese were the first four courses taught when the DP opened. dCourses taught alongside other departments.

Graduate Courses

On November 15, 1974, the Ph.D. in Sciences with a Minor in Chemistry program began at UdeC. The DP initially started with three courses (see Table 2). It is important to note that at the beginning of the doctoral program, there were an important number of German researchers who spent terms teaching polymer-related courses at the Faculty of Chemical Sciences. As time went by, even though cooperation with those researchers continued, the DP academic staff started to teach courses for doctoral students. The visit of German scientists was very helpful in the formation of new doctors and also for the research. Nowadays, polymer courses for graduate students are taught by our colleagues in the Department and by scientists invited from all over the world through scientific cooperation links. In Figure 1, the orange line shows an increasing trend in the number of graduate courses taught by the Department, which reached a peak in 1999 with 11 courses. This is an indication of the efforts made by our colleagues to consolidate polymer science. However, in the ensuing years through 2015, there has been a decrease. This fact will be explained later.

aspect that stood out at that time was the booming wood industry in the Biobió region. At the start of the 20th century, Pinus radiata was one of the first non-native trees introduced in the Biobió region. Over the ensuing decades, the cellulose industries would experience substantial growth. The Wood Chemistry course (1982) was offered to reinforce students’ preparation for the demanding context, in the same manner that the Vegetable Polymers course did from 1986. Research Units I and II were created to allow students of the aforementioned degrees to conduct research on a specific topic led by an academic researcher of the DP. In 1990, Synthetic Polymers and Chemical Adhesives and Additives were offered as a specialization in industrial chemistry, and Biological Chemistry was a continuation course due to the importance of proteins in our lives. Meanwhile, Determination of Three-Dimensional Structures by X-ray C



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It is important to note that the peak in 1999 (Figure 1, orange line) was a remarkable achievement of the academics of that time. Clearly, they had consolidated research in polymers inside the Faculty. However, since the turn of the century, the number of courses has decreased as a consequence of a generational change, where some very good researchers made way for a new generation. Thus, the consolidation or merger of some courses has been conducted by this new generation.

Table 2. Distribution of the New Graduate Courses Taught by the Department of Polymers, 1974−2015 Year of Creation 1974−1975

1976 1977 1978 1979 1982 1984 1985 1986 1987

1989 1990 1991 1993 1994 1996 1997

1998

1999

2000 2001 2005 2013

Name of the Coursea

Areab

Structure and Physical Properties of Polymersc Synthesis and Characterization of Polymersc Physical Properties of the Polymer Solid Statec Mass Spectroscopy Advanced Macromolecular Chemistry Synthesis of Polymers X-ray Diffraction Structural Analysis for Macromolecules Theoretical and Experimental Methods for Structure Elucidation of Biological Molecules Structure Elucidation of Biological Molecules through X-ray Diffraction Advances in Liquid Crystals Crystalline Structure of Macromolecules Crystalline State of Macromolecules Advanced Bioorganics Macromolecules, Updates and Approaches in Synthesis, Biosystems and Metallurgy Topics in Industrial Processes of Renewable Resources Elucidation of Protein Primary Structure and Enzyme Modifiers Fundamentals and Advances in Heterocycle Polymerization Structure, Properties and Applications of Cellulosic Materials Crystalline State of Macromolecules Topics in Macromolecular Chemistry Biological Chemistry X-ray Analysis Chemistry of Natural Polymers Crystalline State of Molecules Polymers in Solution Chemistry of Materials Chemistry of New Materials Application of Biological Polymers Cellulose and Chemical Modification Polymers: Medical Usage Further In-Depth Knowledge of the Characteristics and Structure of Cellulosic Materials Solid State of Polymers Fundamentals of X-ray Diffraction Macromolecular Chemistry Properties and Applications of Natural Polymers Metal Chelate Polymers Chemistry of Metal Atoms and Nanomaterials Polymeric Nanocomposites X-ray Diffraction. Introduction to Structure Resolution

C C C C C C

Orientation of Undergraduate and Graduate Courses

One of the most interesting aspects found in this research is presented in Figure 2. This figure shows cumulative-frequency stacked bar charts of the new courses listed in Tables 1 and 2. It is a fact that the number of new courses has increased over the years, but three main areas where the DP has focused its teaching can also be distinguished. These areas are Applied polymer science (gray bars), Biopolymer science (orange bars), and Core polymer science (blue bars) (see Figure 2). In order to guide the reader, the courses in Tables 1 and 2 were classified into these three areas. The first letters of these classified areas correspond to the abbreviations in the third columns of Tables 1 and 2. The increase in the number of courses over time has been the result of the increase in the number of courses in these three main areas. From Figure 2 it is easy to note that core polymer science subjects (blue bars) have been kept as the basis of polymer science and represent the majority of the courses. In fact, the importance of these courses is especially evident in Figure 2B (graduate courses). Biopolymer science (orange bars) is also an area with many courses because of the importance of biopolymers in our lives, while applied polymer science (gray bars) has seen course numbers rise as a result of the social demand for new polymers and new materials. In addition, the increase in the numbers of more specialized courses (biopolymers and applied) can also be explained by the inter- and transdisciplinary relationships between polymer science and other related fields (biology, physics) that have shown important developments in the last decades, encouraging academics to present new courses for undergraduate and graduate students. As shown in Figure 2, the introduction of new biopolymer courses has been stalled since the 1990s because priority has been given to the core courses. The generational change also applies here.

C C A C C B A A B C B C C B C C C B A A A A A A C C C A A C A C

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UNDERGRADUATE AND GRADUATE THESES IN POLYMERS CONCEIVED IN THE DEPARTMENT As a result of offering many polymer courses for undergraduate and graduate students, the percentage of students doing their theses in the polymer field increased (see Figure 3). It is clear from Figure 3 that both the number of undergraduate theses (blue line) and the number of graduate theses (orange line) increased over the years. It is also evident from Figure 3 that undergraduate theses peaked in 2009, while graduate theses did so around 2000. This asynchrony between the two peaks might be due to the following explanation. The programs of Analytical Chemistry, Civil Engineering in Materials, and Bioengineering were created in 1982, 1993, and 2006, respectively, and the number of students choosing academics from the DP increased. This fact could explain the peak of 33 in 2009 (Figure 3, blue line). A similar situation could explain the peak around 2000 in Figure 3 for graduate theses (orange line), if we consider that a Master’s degree in Chemistry was created in 1980. Although the

a

All of the course titles have been translated from the original ones in Spanish. bPolymer course areas: C, core polymer science; B, biopolymer science; A, applied polymer science. cThese were the first three courses taught initially in the Doctorate program.

The graduate courses listed in Table 2 show a variety of topics and fields in polymer science (a complete list of the courses is presented in Table S2). In that regard, it is important to remark on two things: (i) these have been in the Doctorate curriculum since the beginning as elective courses, and (ii) the variety of topics has given graduate students an overview of what has been happening in polymer research over the years. D



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Figure 2. Cumulative-frequency stacked bar charts (along the years) of new (A) undergraduate and (B) graduate courses classified into three main areas: applied polymer science (gray bars), biopolymer science (orange bars), and core polymer science (blue bars).

steady at around nine, a generation change has been experienced in the last 10 years. This might be the main cause for the decrease in the number of graduate theses seen since 2002 (orange line in Figure 3). Evidence for the adjustment of the new generation of academics is the increase in the number of undergraduate theses in polymers (blue line) seen since 2012.

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COURSES VERSUS THESES: A COMPARISON

Figure 4 shows Figures 1 and 3 combined. It can be seen that the numbers of undergraduate theses (Figure 4A, orange line) and graduate theses (Figure 4B, orange line) are correlated to the numbers of undergraduate courses (Figure 4A, blue line) and graduate courses (Figure 4B, blue line), respectively. These results show evidence that the polymer courses offered by the DP have a notorious and positive influence on the number of students who choose to do an undergraduate or graduate thesis about polymers. Again, in the case of Figure 4A (orange line), the creation of the Chemical Analysis, Bioengineering, and Civil Engineering in Materials programs, together with the first six programs (Chemistry, Biochemistry, Civil Engineering in Chemistry, Pedagogy in Chemistry, Pharmacy, and Biology), led to a peak in 2009 for undergraduate theses.

Figure 3. Numbers of polymer theses done by students in the Department of Polymers at the University of Concepción: blue line, undergraduate theses; orange line, graduate theses.

previous assumption might be correct, it is also important to note that even though the number of academics has remained

Figure 4. Comparison of (A) the number of undergraduate courses and the number of undergraduate theses and (B) the number of graduate courses and the number of graduate theses. E



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UNDERGRADUATE POLYMER COURSES IN CURRICULAR DESIGN After the above review of the DP’s history and analysis of the impact on polymer teaching, this section is devoted to explaining the importance of polymer courses in the undergraduate curriculum for seven programs: Pedagogy in Chemistry, Biochemistry, Bioengineering, Civil Engineering in Materials, Chemical Analysis, Chemistry, and Civil Engineering in Chemistry. It describes the general aspects of polymer courses and how these courses prepare students for future courses where those contents are necessary. For a detailed profile achieved by the students at the end of the program, see Table S3.

and anionic polymerization and (ii) characterize those polymers by viscosimetry measurements, thermal analysis (differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). With this background, students learn how to prepare some demonstrative polymerization experiments for the Planning Experimental Activities for the Learning of Chemistry 1 course (see Figure 5, seventh semester) and become aware of the influence of polymers in the environment. This knowledge is necessary for the Environmental Chemistry course (eighth semester). The practical part of the course also contributes to learning some techniques needed in the eighth-semester course Basic Instrumental Chemistry (see Figure 5). This course is taught by four of the five Faculty departments, the DP being one of them. As a whole, the course prepares students to (i) integrate the structure of the polymer type with the varied applications and properties in industrial processes and (ii) relate the synthesis to industrial production methods. These learning objectives are critical for the seventh-semester course Basic Industrial Chemistry (Figure 5), where students learn and analyze industrial processes on a large scale.

Pedagogy in Chemistry Students

The curriculum of this program has been structured as shown in Figure S1. After four semesters of mainly basic courses, including general and organic chemistry, the fifth semester introduces the students to specific subjects related to their career. Macromolecular Chemistry is a theoretical and practical course that contains all of the basic concepts used in the nomenclature of polymers and the basics of macromolecular chemistry, running from the synthesis of some of these (polymerization and copolymerization) to their physical and chemical properties. It also reviews properties and applications of natural polymers. Macromolecular Chemistry appears as a sixth-semester course in the curriculum (present from 1983, as previously mentioned), with Structure and Reactivity of Organic Molecules a prerequisite for this subject (Figure 5).

Biochemistry Students

According to Figure S2, the Biochemistry program lasts 10 semesters from basic to specific courses, allowing students to build the profile needed to work in the areas mentioned in Table S3. Macromolecular Physical Chemistry has been a core course in the fifth semester for Biochemistry students (Figure 6) since 1983. This subject takes students into the main

Figure 6. Semester progression and fifth-semester course Macromolecular Physical Chemistry in the curriculum for Biochemistry students. The course has two prerequisite courses in the fifth semester and has an impact on a sixth-semester course. Figure 5. Semester progression and the sixth-semester course Macromolecular Chemistry in the curriculum for Pedagogy in Chemistry students. The course has one prerequisite course in the fifth semester and has an impact on the seventh- and eighth-semester courses. (It is important to note that even when Basic Industrial Chemistry is a Faculty course, the DP contributes to teaching part of this course).

theoretical aspects that provide knowledge, characterization, and analysis of (bio)polymer materials from the thermodynamic point of view. The course provides theoretical tools to • Identify the main structural features of macromolecules • Interpret macromolecular behavior on the basis of fundamental thermodynamic concepts • Associate the structures of (bio)macromolecules with their functions and properties • Predict macromolecular behavior under specific conditions • Weigh the importance of thermodynamics in understanding how macromolecules work Applications of this area are found in refs 29 and 30.

At this point, students have the competence to undertake a course that is needed as a prerequisite for several courses from the seventh and eighth semesters. The basics of this macromolecular course prepare students to better tackle protein structures in the seventh-semester course Biochemistry (Figure 5). Macromolecular Chemistry has a practical part in which students (i) synthesize some polymers through chemical reactions such as polyaddition, polycondensation, and radical F



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Figure 7. Semester progression and fifth-semester course Macromolecular Physical Chemistry in the curriculum for Bioengineering students. The course has two prerequisite courses in the third and fourth semesters. The courses that Macromolecular Physical Chemistry might indirectly impact in the sixth semester and later are also shown.

Organic Chemistry 2. One of the topics in Organic Chemistry 2 is biological polymers. Macromolecular Physical Chemistry focuses on the following topics: • Introduction to macromolecules: First and Second law of thermodynamics • Solutions of macromolecules • Chemical balance • Transport processes • Electrical properties • Dispersion of radiation • Circular dichroism and rotating optical dispersion • Absorption and emission of radiation On the basis of the content of Macromolecular Physical Chemistry (as listed above), it is expected that students will be able to • Know general aspects of macromolecules and analyze the first and second laws of thermodynamics in relation to biological systems through appropriate examples (the concepts of entropy and chemical equilibrium based on statistical analysis are also studied) • Assimilate the knowledge on the thermodynamics of solutions of macromolecules through partial molar properties and the relationship with equilibrium processes (e.g., membrane balance, dialysis, and Donnan and active transport) and determine the molecular weights by osmometry • Introduce thermodynamic concepts on chemical reactions in solution and analyze the types of multiple and conformational equilibria typical of macromolecules with the help of typical examples for biomolecules • Analyze the concepts of thermodynamics of irreversible processes in transport phenomena in a state of nonequilibrium, exhaustively studying the phenomena of diffusion, sedimentation and viscosity, through which structural parameters and properties of macromolecules are determined • Assimilate the fundamentals on the electrical properties of biopolymers, analyzing the transport processes (electrophoresis) and orientation of the molecules in an electric field

Macromolecular Physical Chemistry has two prerequisites, Thermodynamics and Basic Kinetics and Calculus for Biochemistry, both of which are third-semester courses (see Figure 6). Thermodynamics is essential for macromolecules in solution (which is one of the topics in Macromolecular Physical Chemistry), and Calculus for Biochemistry is also essential because of the amount of calculus used in Thermodynamics (see Figure 6). Macromolecular Physical Chemistry focuses on the following topics: • Introduction about macromolecules: First and second laws of thermodynamics • Solutions of macromolecules • Chemical equilibrium • Transport processes • Electrical properties • Dispersion of radiation • Circular dichroism and optical rotatory dispersion • Absorption and emission of radiation With this content, it is expected that students will be able to explain the typical phenomena of macromolecules, especially those of biological interest (biopolymers). The subjects allow them to correlate the structures of molecules with their properties and functions. This background knowledge gives students the building blocks for Biophysics, a sixth-semester course (see Figure 6). The main focus in the Biophysics course is studying the physics of vital phenomena at all levels, from the cellular and molecular to the macroscopic and organic. In that sense, Macromolecular Physical Chemistry delivers the knowledge needed to address the main focal points of Biophysics. Bioengineering Students

Figure S3 shows the curriculum for Bioengineering students. The Bioengineering program lasts 10 semesters, and Macromolecular Physical Chemistry (since 2006) is part of the fifth semester. In that regard, the Macromolecular Physical Chemistry course (which is not a specific prerequisite for any particular course) gives students the background necessary for some courses in the sixth semester, as can be seen in Figure 7. Figure 7 also shows that the prerequisites for Macromolecular Physical Chemistry are Physics 2 (Fields and Waves) and G



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Figure 8. Semester progression and fourth-semester course Chemistry of Materials in the curriculum for Civil Engineering in Materials students. The course has one prerequisite course in the third trimester and has an impact on an eighth-semester course.

• Formulate the experimental and theoretical concepts of radiation dispersion from solutions of macromolecules and their relation to the determination of structural parameters (the basic concepts of X-ray diffraction are also given, and the determination of some properties and characterization of crystalline macromolecules is taught) • Assimilate how the absorption of plane-polarized and circularly polarized radiation affects the macromolecules and analyze the phenomena of circular dichroism and optical rotatory dispersion on the basis of physicochemical concepts, allowing structural aspects of biopolymers in solution to be determined • Show structural aspects of macromolecules in solution on the basis of the absorption and emission of radiation (the basis for interpretation of infrared (IR), visible, and ultraviolet (UV) spectroscopy is taught) It is important to note that Macromolecular Physical Chemistry is only a theoretical course.

As was mentioned previously, Chemistry of Materials is a theoretical subject that contains new basic concepts of materials chemistry. The course is divided into six modules, and at the end of course students are expected to be able to • Refine, relate, and use basic knowledge about polymers • Relate the different methods of organic chemistry to homo- and copolymer synthesis according to kinetic, stereoregularity, and physical properties • Identify the molecular ordering of polymers in the solid state (general methods of structure elucidation) • Relate the thermodynamic properties of polymers in solution as a function of their molecular masses • Apply the theoretical bases on material (polymer) analysis methods (description and fundamentals of instruments) • Recognize habitual handling techniques in polymer laboratories that allow the size of macromolecules and their polydispersity to be determined • Connect the macromolecular structure with the mechanical properties of polymeric materials Characterization of Materials is an eighth-semester course (see Figure 8) that has a strong practical component. It is expected that the above learning outcomes will provide students with the skills to manage the practical part of the course. Reference 31 is an example of the application of this field.

Civil Engineering in Materials Students

The profile for this program is achieved over the 11 semesters that the degree lasts, with chemical sciences playing a major role through the eighth semester (Figure S4). Chemistry of Materials is a theoretical course that introduces students to important aspects that provide knowledge, characterization, and analysis of polymeric materials. The contents of the course include the synthesis of polymers through radical, ionic, and stereospecific polymerization, polymer classification and properties such as thermal, mechanical, barrier, and so forth. The course transfers knowledge from the point of view of chemical structure and how this affects the macroscopic properties. It is therefore wellcomplemented by more advanced courses that review content about polymer science from an engineering point of view. It is important to note that all Engineering first-year students have a first year divided into three trimesters. The first trimester corresponds to grading courses, and the second and third semesters are devoted to basic sciences and mathematics. The program is taught by the Faculty of Engineering. Since the degree focuses on materials, a course such as Chemistry of Materials is vital for these Engineers. Chemistry of Materials is a fourth-semester course for these Engineers (see Figure 8). It has as a prerequisite General Chemistry 2 (in the third trimester) and a tremendous impact on Characterization of Materials, an eighth-semester course.

Chemical Analysis Students

Because of the importance of chemical analysis in the polymer industry, a course such as Analysis of Polymeric Materials is crucial in the education of these undergraduate students. The program lasts eight semesters (see Figure S5), in which students are mainly taught chemistry-related subjects. This is not surprising, since the profile of the graduate is completely related to chemical sciences. For that reason, the Chemical Analysis program is taught by the Faculty of Chemical Sciences. Analysis of Polymeric Materials is a sixth-semester theoretical and practical course (Figure 9) that introduces students to the theoretical and practical aspects of techniques that allow the characterization and analysis of polymeric materials. Figure 9 shows that Analysis of Polymeric Materials is a sixthsemester course in the curriculum for Chemical Analysis students. It has Organic Chemistry 2 and Practical Physical Chemistry (both fourth-semester courses) and Analytical Chemistry 2 (a fifth-semester course) as prerequisites. Organic H



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To obtain the expected skills in this course, the background knowledge built up through the prerequisite courses is needed, as well as learning about the following topics: • Thermal analysis methods for polymers • Electron microscopy applied to polymers • Determination of polymer structure by X-ray diffraction • Molecular exclusion chromatography • Determination of mechanical properties • Ultrafiltration in water-soluble polymers In the practical part of this course, the students have an experimental activity for every content area mentioned above in order to connect the theoretical and practical sections. It is expected that after these course, students will be able to • Apply theoretical bases on material (polymer) analysis methods and describe the fundamentals of the instruments • Examine the morphology and structure of crystalline polymers, the kinetics and mechanisms of crystallization, and characterization • Identify the molecular ordering of polymers in the solid state (general methods to determine structures) • Apply techniques habitually used when handling polymers in laboratories and techniques that allow the size of macromolecules and their polydispersity to be determined • Connect the macromolecular structure with the mechanical properties of polymeric materials • Apply the retention technique of a liquid-phase polymer, which combines the presence of a water-soluble chelating polymer and ultrafiltration membranes. Examples of the application of this area are given in refs 32−36.

Figure 9. Semester progression and sixth-semester course Analysis of Polymeric Materials in the curriculum for Chemical Analysis students. The course has two prerequisite course in the fourth semester and one in the fifth semester. Synthesis and Applications of Polymers is also highlighted as an elective course that the DP offers.

Chemistry 2 is required for Analysis of Polymeric Materials because it gives the foundations of polymers and their synthesis as well as providing techniques such as FTIR, 1H and 13C NMR, and UV−vis spectroscopy and mass spectrometry (MS), which are needed for the characterization of polymers. Practical Physical Chemistry is a course in which students must apply different methodologies and techniques learned from physical chemistry to unknown samples given to them as a challenge. These techniques include density, viscosity, conductivity, adsorption, calorimetry, polarimetry, and potentiometry, all of which are used to characterize polymers. Analytical Chemistry 2 is a course in which quantitative analysis, gravimetry, volumetry, and data analysis are taught. Through these courses, it is expected that students will master these areas for courses in which analyses of different samples are mandatory, as in Analysis of Polymeric Materials.

Chemistry Students

The Chemistry program lasts eight semesters (see Figure S6) and ranges from basic sciences to the four classic areas of chemistry: Physical Chemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Organic Chemistry, and Inorganic Chemistry. In the final year, the courses focus on industrial chemistry. Despite the importance of classical and industrial chemistry courses, polymersa field considered as a subdiscipline of Organic Chemistryhave

Figure 10. Semester progression and courses Chemistry and Quality of Life, Polymers, Chemistry of Materials, and Organic and Polymeric Industrial Chemistry in the curriculum for Chemistry students. The elective courses are also highlighted. I



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and properties of polymers with the main characterization techniques to study thermal and mechanical properties. Additionally, the course introduces students to the science of composite materials, particularly to polymeric composites reviewed from conventional composite materials to recent advances in the field of polymer nanocomposites. Chemistry of Materials integrates four courses, as can be seen from Figure 10. Polymers was incorporated as a prerequisite course because new polymers are a subject of study in materials science. Organic Chemistry 2 is another course needed for Chemistry of Materials, as many composite materials are made of different organic compounds; Analytical Chemistry 2 is also needed because the course has a strong characterization and thermal and mechanical studies of materials component. Physical Chemistry 2 has been incorporated as a prerequisite because condensed-phase equilibrium is used for polymers in solution and electrochemistry is used for the analysis of metals. Chemistry of Materials encompasses these topics: • Materials science • Porous solids • Metallic materials • Ceramic materials • Polymeric materials • New materials (involving more than one Department of the Faculty of Chemical Science) The purpose of the course is to provide students with up-todate knowledge of what is being researched in materials. It is very likely that in their work as professionals, chemists graduating from UdeC will have to deal with these compounds. In that regard, the practical part complements the theoretical part well through experimental works such as • Thermal properties of materials • TGA/DSC analysis • Mechanical properties of materials • Corrosion rate • Adsorption isotherms in porous materials In regard to learning outcomes, it is expected that after this course undergraduates will be able to • Identify different types of materials • Explain the main applications of different types of materials • Relate the molecular structure of materials to their properties • Apply analytical methods in the characterization of some materials References 39 and 40 are good examples of the research in this field. Organic and Polymer Industrial Chemistry is a 10thsemester course for Chemists (Figure 10). It is a theoretical and practical subject that gives the student fundamental concepts and an integrated vision about the importance and use of organic and polymeric products of commercial interest. Industrial processes ranging from raw materialsneeded for productionto different technological uses are analyzed, allowing students to work in the organic and polymeric chemical industry. Organic and Polymer Industrial Chemistry has these course as prerequisites: Chemical Industries in Chile, Industrial Chemical Processes, and Matter and Energy Balance. All of these courses are taken in the ninth semester of the curriculum (see Figure 10). The chemical industrial courses have a local

emerged as an important part of chemistry. As a result, Polymers was included as a fifth-semester course in 2015 (Figure 10). Polymers is a theoretical and practical subject that gives students fundamental concepts of synthetic and natural polymers. The structural characteristics of polymers and biopolymers and the relationship to their properties in both the liquid and solid state are analyzed. Physical Chemistry 1 and Organic Chemistry 2 are prerequisite courses needed for Polymers (Figure 10). Physical Chemistry 1 provides students with the entire thermodynamics basis to analyze polymers in solution, and Organic Chemistry 2 provides students with the description of all organic groups as well as an introduction to condensation polymers. Polymers is a fifth-semester course with the following content: • Basic concepts of polymers • Types of polymerization • Copolymers and copolymerization • Stereospecific polymerization • Polymers in solution • Characterization methods of polymers in solution and in the solid state • Polymers of natural origin: properties and characterization This content focuses on illustrating the main concepts that undergraduate chemists must know about polymers. The theoretical part is well-complemented by the practical part. Students must carry out the following experimental work: • Polycondensation • Kinetics of polycondensation • Radical synthesis of polystyrene • Characterization by viscosimetry and TGA • Chromatography • Detection and identification of proteins • Synthesis of carboxymethylcellulose These experimental works were designed for the student to acquire general knowledge about the synthesis of polymers, some techniques to characterize the synthesized polymers, and where and how to detect biopolymers. It is expected that on the basis of the knowledge and skills learned in this course, undergraduates will be successful in • Describing different types of polymers and polymerization methods • Explaining the behavior of polymers and biopolymers in solution • Describing the main methods of characterization of polymers and biopolymers • Connecting the macromolecular structure with the properties of polymer compounds Finally, it is important to point out that Polymers prepares the student for Chemistry of Materials, a sixth-semester course (see Figure 10). Examples of biopolymers research are given in refs 37 and38. Chemistry of Materials for Chemistry students has a different approach compared with the approach for Civil Engineering in Materials students. This is a theoretical and practical course that introduces students to important aspects that provide knowledge, characterization, and analysis of metallic, ceramic, porous, polymeric, and composite materials. Polymer science provides knowledge about the classification J



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ensuring that at the end of their studies students will have the tools necessary to deal with professional development or simply to better understand polymeric materials that surround us in everyday life. As a final reflection of this work, one of us (B.L.R.) summarizes the importance of polymers by noting that polymers are critically important as life is based on polymers (nucleic acids, proteins, and more), while improvements in people’s quality of life and advances in technology are based on advances in polymer science.

purpose with knowledge about processes of Chilean industries, while Matter and Energy Balance is a subject needed for every engineering area. The content of Organic and Polymer Industrial Chemistry is divided into two areas: (i) organic processes (agrochemicals, dyes and pigments, pharmaceuticals, organic compounds for food industries, and organic solvents) and (ii) polymeric processes (industrial processes for obtaining polymers, manufacturing methods for polymer products, thermoplastic polymers, resins, and adhesives, fibers, rubber, paints and coatings, modification of polymers, and additives). The experimental part consists of a single experimental project lasting approximately 2 months in which students have to simulate a complete industrial process. The following learning outcomes are expected at the end of the course: • Identifying the main organic and polymer industries and their impact on society • Identifying the main sources of organic and polymeric products • Describing production processes of organic and polymeric products • Relating types of organic and monomeric raw materials with production methods • Connecting production methods with properties and applications of organic and polymeric materials. Reference 41 provides a research example in this field. Although Chemistry and Quality of Life is not a polymerrelated course, it is included in the second semester of the curriculum of Chemistry students (see Figure 10), as it describes the importance of chemistry as a fundamental science in life and human development. Emphasis is placed on chemists’ social responsibility. An example of the application of this area is provided by ref 42. The elective course Synthesis and Applications of Polymers is a theoretical subject that aims to provide students with knowledge of advances in the field of macromolecular chemistry from a synthesis and characterization point of view as well as considering applications in different fields such as medicine, environment, materials, agriculture, and organic synthesis. It is an elective course for Chemical Analysis (Figure 9), Chemistry (Figure 10), and Civil Engineering in Chemistry students (Figure S7). For Chemical Analysis students, the course might be taken in the fifth semester, while for Chemistry the possibilities include the seventh, ninth, and 10th semesters. In both programs, the purpose of a course like this is to reinforce undergraduates’ knowledge of polymers for postgraduate studies. For Civil Engineering in Chemistry students, the course aims to be a specialization in polymers, as this program does not have industrial polymers as a subject. An application of this area is found in ref 43.

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ASSOCIATED CONTENT

S Supporting Information *

The Supporting Information is available on the ACS Publications website at DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.7b00212. List of all of the undergraduate and graduate courses taught by the DP from 1974 to 2015, student profiles for each program, and all curricula mentioned in this article (PDF, DOCX)

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AUTHOR INFORMATION

Corresponding Author

*E-mail: patricio.fl[email protected]. ORCID

Patricio Flores-Morales: 0000-0002-8330-3992 Notes

The authors declare no competing financial interest.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS P.F.-M. thanks H. Maturana, D. Melo, C. Gacitúa, A. Garcia,́ F. Zúñiga, and M. Meléndrez for their kind help and Grant ́ UCO1403-MINEDUC (CREA-Quimica UdeC) for support.

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REFERENCES

(1) Asimov, I. A Short History of Chemistry, 1st ed.; Greenwood Press: London, 1979; pp 28−48. (2) Morawetz, H. Polymers: The Origins and Growth of a Science; Dover Publications: New York, 1975. (3) Patterson, G. A Prehistory of Polymer Science, 1st ed.; Springer: Berlin, 2012. (4) Rivas, B. L.; Sadowski, Z. Bacterial Generation of Liquid Arsenic Waste and the Application of Water-Soluble Polymers for Arsenic Ions Separation. Rev. Environ. Sci. Bio/Technol. 2014, 13 (3), 277−284. (5) Rivas, B. L.; Pereira, E. D.; Palencia, M.; Sánchez, J. WaterSoluble Functional Polymers in Conjunction with Membranes to Remove Pollutant Ions from Aqueous Solutions. Prog. Polym. Sci. 2011, 36 (2), 294−322. (6) Rivas, B. L.; Pereira, E. D.; Moreno-Villoslada, I. Water-Soluble Polymer−Metal Ion Interactions. Prog. Polym. Sci. 2003, 28 (2), 173− 208. (7) Tapiero, Y.; Sánchez, J.; Rivas, B. L. Ion-Selective Interpenetrating Polymer Networks Supported inside Polypropylene Microporous Membranes for the Removal of Chromium Ions from Aqueous Media. Polym. Bull. 2016, 73 (4), 989−1013. (8) Oxford Dictionaries. Definition of “polymer” in English. https:// en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/polymer (accessed August 2017). (9) Grishin, D. F.; Grishin, I. Controlled Radical Polymerization: Prospects for Application for Industrial Synthesis of Polymers (Review). Russ. J. Appl. Chem. 2011, 84 (12), 2021−2028. (10) Heckele, M.; Schomburg, W. K. Review on Micro Molding of Thermoplastic Polymers. J. Micromech. Microeng. 2004, 14, R1−R14.

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CONCLUDING REMARKS Over the years, the DP has provided a constant offer of courses for chemistry-related careers in the curriculum and also has incorporated polymer science courses in seven programs of UdeC’s careers, reflected in the increasing number of theses in the field of polymers for undergraduate students as well as for graduate students. These efforts have been made possible by the relentless teaching and research of the members of the department in the field of polymers, giving the students basic and/or specialized knowledge about polymer science, thereby K



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