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Chapter 5

Temporal Trends of Persistent Toxic Substances and Benthic Community Responses in Special Management Areas of Korea: The Masan Bay and Lake Sihwa Cases Yeonjung Lee,1 Jongseong Ryu,2 Seongjin Hong,3 and Jong Seong Khim*,4 1Marine

Ecosystem and Biological Research Center, Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology, Ansan 15627, Republic of Korea 2Department of Marine Biotechnology, Anyang University, Ganghwa-gun, Incheon 23038, Republic of Korea 3Department of Ocean Environmental Sciences, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 34134, Republic of Korea 4School of Earth and Environmental Sciences & Research Institute of Oceanography, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea *E-mail: [email protected]

In Korea, nearly all coastal areas adjacent to municipalities have been exposed to significant environmental pressures, particularly during the period of rapid industrialization since the 1970s. In the present study, pollution controls and managements of highly polluted areas by the Korean government and their effectiveness such as environmental quality improvement and ecological responses were reviewed. To improve water quality, the government has designated special management areas (SMAs) and has implemented the Total Pollution Load Management System (TPLMS). The TPLMS is a proactive management system aiming to control the chemical oxygen demand and total phosphorus content by managing the emission of land-derived pollutants. Among various coastal areas, Masan Bay and Lake Sihwa have been identified as hot spots for coastal pollution, and the TPLMS has been applied. After the introduction of environmental © 2016 American Chemical Society Loganathan et al.; Persistent Organic Chemicals in the Environment: Status and Trends in the Pacific Basin Countries II ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


management plans, including the TPLMS, the general water quality, in terms of chemical oxygen demand, dissolved oxygen, total nitrogen, and total phosphorus has improved in both areas. Concentrations of several persistent toxic substances (e.g., polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans [PCDD/Fs], polychlorinated biphenyls [PCBs], and nonylphenolic chemicals [NPs]) in sediments have shown decreasing trends in recent years. The frequency of red tides has also decreased with the improvement of environmental quality. Macrobenthic communities have generally reflected environmental deterioration and improvement before and after the implementation of TPLMS in these SMAs. Overall, environmental policies regarding water and sediment quality are needed to maintain these sustainable coastal areas.

Abbreviations BTs: butyltin compounds; Chl-a: chlorophyll-a; COD: chemical oxygen demand; DO: dissolved oxygen; EA: Environment Administration; ERL: effects range low; ERM: effects range median; FEQG: federal environmental quality guidelines; HBCDs: hexabromocyclododecanes; HSV: higher screening value; ISQG: interim sediment quality guidelines; LSC: lower screening value; MEIS: Marine Environment Information System; MLTM: Ministry of Land, Transportation and Maritime Affairs; MOE: Ministry of Environment; MOMAF: Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries; NPs: nonylphenolic chemicals; PAHs: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; PBDEs: polybrominated diphenyl ethers; PCBs: polychlorinated biphenyls; PCDD/Fs: polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans; PEL: predicted effects level; PTSs: persistent toxic substances; SCR EMMP: Sihwa Coastal Reservoir Environmental Management Master Plan; SMA: special management area; SS: suspended solids; STPP: Sihwa Tidal Power Plant; TN: total nitrogen; TP: total phosphorous; TPLMS: Total Pollution Load Management System; WAMIS: Water Resources Management Information System; WQ: water quality; WWTPs: wastewater treatment plants

Introduction In Korea, with rapid social and economic developments in past decades, oceanic and coastal marine environments have been exposed to significant environmental pressures and damaged. To prevent coastal and marine pollution, the Korean government has been managing these ecosystems based on the Marine Environment Management Act. 104 Loganathan et al.; Persistent Organic Chemicals in the Environment: Status and Trends in the Pacific Basin Countries II ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


Special Management Areas Globally, coastal areas have been subjected to intense development during the past 50 years; this process is an important component of overall socioeconomic development (1). In addition, two-thirds of megacities, which have populations exceeding 10 million, are located near coastal areas (2). About half (~47%) of the total population of the Republic of Korea lives in the coastal basin, where the population density is greater than the national average (3). Although coastal areas are economically important in the context of rapid development, serious coastal ecosystem damage and increases in the pollution load have occurred. The Korean government manages marine areas based on the Marine Environment Standard. When the standard is difficult to maintain or a significant obstacle hinders the preservation of the marine environment and ecosystem, the Minister may designate a special management area (SMA). This designation includes terrestrial areas that potentially contribute to marine pollution. To date, five coastal areas in the Republic of Korea have been designated SMAs: Masan Bay, the Sihwa-Incheon Coastal Area, the Busan Coastal Area, the Ulsan Coastal Area, and Gwangyang Bay (Figure 1). Masan Bay was designated as a SMA in 1982, and the other four SMAs were established in 2000. About 1,172 km2 (41%) of coastal areas and 1,718 km2 (59%) of terrestrial areas are managed as SMAs. Total Pollution Load Management System To improve the marine environments in SMAs, the Korean government has begun to apply the Total Pollution Load Management System (TPLMS) in a stepwise manner (Figure 1). The TPLMS was first applied to Masan Bay in 2008, and was then adopted at Lake Sihwa in July 2013 and the Busan Coast in September 2015. This proactive management system is similar to the Total Maximum Daily Load System implemented by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (4). It aims to control land-derived pollutants, which are major causes of coastal and marine pollution, by managing pollutant emissions in the severely polluted areas designated as SMAs. Permissible levels of pollutant emissions are determined by the water quality target for each area. At present, target water-quality standards focus on the chemical oxygen demand (COD) and total phosphorus (TP) content.

Review Framework Target Areas To understand the effects of the Korean government’s measures (e.g., adaptive management and strengthen pollution control) on the environmental qualities of coastal water and bottom sediment, all relevant scientific literature, reports, and national monitoring data were scrutinized, with a focus on the Masan Bay and Lake Sihwa areas. The TPLMS has been applied in both of these SMAs, which are known to have heavily polluted water and sediment. In addition, several studies have documented severe organic contamination by persistent toxic 105 Loganathan et al.; Persistent Organic Chemicals in the Environment: Status and Trends in the Pacific Basin Countries II ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


substances (PTSs) in both areas. This phenomenon has become an important environmental issue for the Korean public, government, and scientists.

Figure 1. Map showing the (a) special management areas (SMAs) in Korea, with insets (b) and (c) detailing the areas of focus in the present study. (d) Plan for the implementation of the total pollution load management system (TPLMS) in the five SMAs (COD: chemical oxygen demand; TP: total phosphorous). Data Collection and Analysis National water-quality monitoring data, such as COD, dissolved oxygen (DO), total nitrogen (TN), TP, suspended solids (SS), and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) contents in surface and bottom waters, were used to determine changes in water quality in Masan Bay and Lake Sihwa. Water quality data for Masan Bay were collected from the Marine Environment Information System (MEIS) (5). Data on the treatment capacities of the Dukdong and Jinhae wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in the Masan Bay watershed were collected from the Water Resources Management Information System (WAMIS) (6). Water quality data for Lake Sihwa were collected from the WAMIS (6) through 2003 and from the MEIS (5) from 2004. Sediment contamination by PTSs in Masan Bay and Lake Sihwa has been monitored since the 1990s. Information about organic pollutants, such 106 Loganathan et al.; Persistent Organic Chemicals in the Environment: Status and Trends in the Pacific Basin Countries II ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


as polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) (7–14), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) (13–19), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) (10, 13–15, 17, 19–22), nonylphenolic chemicals (NPs) (10, 12, 15, 17, 19, 23–25), butyltin compounds (BTs) (13, 19, 26–28), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) (10, 12, 14, 18, 19, 25, 29), and hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs) (25, 29), in Masan Bay was assimilated from peer-reviewed articles. Data on PTSs, such as PCDD/Fs (11, 30), PCBs (15, 31, 32), PAHs (15, 32–35), NPs (15, 24, 32, 36–38), PBDEs (29, 39), HBCDs (29), and styrene oligomers (SOs) (33), in sediment of the Lake Sihwa area were also collected from peer-reviewed articles. National monitoring data on the frequency of red tides and maximum cell density of red tide algae in Masan Bay from 1981 to 2015 were collected from the National Institute of Fisheries Science (40). Information about macrozoobenthos communities since the 1970s was extracted from 7 papers for Masan Bay (41–47) and 19 papers for the Sihwa-Incheon Coastal Area (48–66). Organic pollution and enrichment indicator species were identified in a previous study (67). The temporal patterns of environmental quality and ecological responses in Masan Bay and Lake Sihwa during the last ~35 years were described in the following order. First, to understand temporal changes in environmental status in these SMAs, time-periodic main issues of environmental deterioration and the Korean government’s measures were examined. Second, indices of water quality (COD, DO, TN, TP, SS, and Chl-a) in both areas were examined in combination with additional data (i.e., treatment capacities of the two main WWTPs [Dukdong and Jinhae] in Masan Bay and seawater circulation rate at Lake Sihwa) to assess improvements in water quality. Third, to understand changes in sediment quality in terms of PTSs, available data for both areas during the corresponding period were also examined. Finally, changes in the frequency of red tides and in the macrozoobenthos communities in the SMAs were examined to understand ecological responses to environmental changes in coastal waters and sediment.

Masan Bay Environmental Deterioration and Pollution Control Masan Bay is a typical semi-enclosed bay located on the south coast of Korea (Figure 1b). This area has been identified as a hot spot for coastal pollution, particularly due to the enclosed bay system, from heavy loads of land-driven pollutants, including municipal sewage and industrial wastewater, over the past 40 years (68). Large-scale reclamation of tidal wetlands (~0.8 km2) was conducted until 1967. As a result, the morphology of the Masan Bay has been changed markedly (Figure 2). In addition, large amounts of contaminants were discharged without appropriate treatment from municipalities and major industrial (petrochemical, heavy metals, electrical, and plastics) complexes, built in the 1970s, into Masan Bay between 1970 and 1980. Slow rates of water exchange have contributed to increasing pollutant levels. As a result, shellfish gathering has been prohibited since 1979 and large-scale red tides appeared beginning in 1981. The Korean government designated Masan Bay as a SMA in 1982 and expanded 107 Loganathan et al.; Persistent Organic Chemicals in the Environment: Status and Trends in the Pacific Basin Countries II ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


the size of this SMA in 2000. Several measures to strengthen pollution control (i.e., dredging of polluted sediments and/or construction/upgrading of WWTPs) have been implemented to improve water quality (69, 70). However, the water quality of Masan Bay was worst among Korean bays in 2006 (71). The Korean government has implemented the TPLMS in this SMA since 2008. Target water-quality levels were 2.5 ppm COD during the first TPLMS phase (2008–2012), and 2.2 ppm COD and 0.041 ppm TP during the second phase (2013–2016).

Temporal Trends of Environmental Quality Improvement of Water Quality Total treatment capacities of the Dukdong and Jinhae WWTPs have increased gradually over the past ~20 years (Figure 3). Accordingly, the COD in surface and bottom waters has tended to decrease, and DO concentrations have increased. The depletion of DO in bottom water of Masan Bay was a major environmental concern, and this increase indicates the improvement of water quality. TN and TP contents also showed decreasing trends during the past ~15 years. Large fluctuations in the SS and Chl-a contents have been observed, with no distinct trend. The construction and/or upgrading of WWTPs in Masan Bay were considered to be important measures to improve water quality (68, 72). In addition, reductions in land-based pollutant loading (e.g., COD, SS, TN, and TP in rivers and WWTPs) were reported in this area after TPLMS implementation (68). These results show the importance of controlling point-source inputs. However, to achieve the target water quality during the second phase of the TPLMS and to maintain sustainable development, additional abatement action plans, such as those for the management of non-point sources and/or the introduction of advanced treatment systems at WWTPs, are needed.

Temporal Distributions of PTSs in Sediments of Masan Bay Masan Bay has been recognized as the most polluted Korean coastal area. Extensive studies of the sources, distribution, and potential toxic effects of PTSs in Masan Bay and adjacent inland creeks have been conducted since the 1990s (10, 17–19, 35).

108 Loganathan et al.; Persistent Organic Chemicals in the Environment: Status and Trends in the Pacific Basin Countries II ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


109 Figure 2. Environmental issues and Korean government’s measures in Masan Bay (1950–present) (WQ: water quality; SMA: special management area; EA: Environment Administration; MOMAF: Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries; TPLMS: Total Pollution Load Management System; MLTM: Ministry of Land, Transportation and Maritime Affairs; COD: chemical oxygen demand; TP: total phosphorous).

Loganathan et al.; Persistent Organic Chemicals in the Environment: Status and Trends in the Pacific Basin Countries II ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


Figure 3. Temporal variations in annual mean concentrations of (a) chemical oxygen demand (COD), (b) dissolved oxygen (DO), (c) total nitrogen (TN), (d) total phosphorus (TP), (e) suspended solids (SS), and (f) chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in surface and bottom seawater samples taken from Masan Bay, 1997–2015 (source: www.meis.go.kr/rest/main). Treatment capacities of the Dukdong and Jinhae wastewater treatment plants during the corresponding period are presented as background information. (Data are available in the online database, accessible at www.wamis.go.kr.) Previous studies have indicated that sedimentary PTSs in Masan Bay originate mainly from surrounding industrial complexes, municipalities, and WWTP outfalls (10, 14, 22). Masan Bay is a long, narrow inlet of a semi-enclosed bay, with a very slow rate of water exchange and long residence time (12, 17). Thus, land-derived organic matter, including PTSs, is accumulated largely in sediments. Concentrations of PTSs exceeding the existing sediment quality guidelines have been detected in the sediments of Masan Bay (Figure 4) (7, 9, 10, 12, 14, 17, 28). In particular, concentrations of PCDD/Fs and NPs are large, and control and management of these chemicals is needed (9, 10, 16, 17, 23). Temporal trends of PTSs in Masan Bay sediments revealed slightly decreased concentrations of PTSs from 2004 to 2013 for PCDD/Fs (9, 10, 12, 13), 1997 to 2013 for PCBs (13, 14, 16–19), 1997 to 2014 for PAHs (10, 13, 14, 17, 19–21), 1998 to 2012 for NPs (10, 12, 17, 19, 23–25), 1996 to 2012 for BTs (13, 19, 26–28), 2005 to 2012 for PBDEs (10, 12, 19, 25, 29), and 2005 to 2010 for HBCDs (25, 29) (Figure 4). This reduction in PTS contamination seems to be associated with recent regulation of flue gas from waste incinerators, bans on the use of certain PTSs, and implementation of the TPLMS (14, 67, 68). However, large concentrations of some PTSs continue to be detected in the sediments of 110 Loganathan et al.; Persistent Organic Chemicals in the Environment: Status and Trends in the Pacific Basin Countries II ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


Masan Bay due to their persistence. In addition, the TPLMS does not list PTSs as target substances for the reduction of Masan Bay pollution. Thus, continuous monitoring and management of PTSs in the Masan Bay ecosystem are needed.

Figure 4. Temporal distributions of persistent toxic substances in sediments of Masan Bay. The green dotted lines indicate the lower effective concentrations (interim sediment quality guidelines [ISQG] (73–75), effects range low [ERL] (76), or lower screening value [LSC] (77)) and the red solid lines indicate the higher effective concentrations (predicted effects level [PEL] (73, 74), effects range median [ERM] (76), higher screening value [HSV] (77), or federal environmental quality guidelines [FEQG] (78, 79)).


Ecological Responses


Red Tide Red tides, which have caused major damage to fisheries and the tourism industry (80, 81), have been documented in Korean waters since AD 161 (82–86). They have appeared frequently in Masan Bay since the 1980s (87, 88). Overall, the frequency of red tides shows a decreasing trend from 1986 to the present (Figure 5). The greatest frequencies occurred in 1983 and 1986, and were accompanied by high maximum cell densities. The second largest peaks were observed between 1998 and 2005, with low cell densities. These trends correspond well with TN and TP concentrations during these periods. Various red tide algae, such as Chaetoceros spp., Eutreptiella sp., Exuviaella compressa, Gymnodinium splendens, Heterosigma akashiwo, Leptocylindrus sp., Mesodinium rubrum, Nitzschia sp., Prorocentrum minimum, Prorocentrum sp., Skeletonema costatum, and Thalassiosira sp., were found between 1983 and 1986, whereas Akashiwo sanguinea, Alexandrium spp., Ceratium furca, Cochlodinium polykrikoides, Dinophysis acuminate, Eucampia zodiacus, Eutreptiella gymnastica, Gymnodinium sanguineum, Heterocapsa triquetra, Heterosigma akashiwo, Mesodinium rubrum, Prorocentrum micans, Prorocentrum minimum, Prorocentrum triestinum, Pseudo-nitzschia pungens, Rhizosolenia fragilissima, Skeletonema costatum, and Thalassiosira spp. were found between 1998 and 2005 (40, 89).

Figure 5. Frequencies of red tide and maximum cell densities in Masan Bay during the past ~35 years. (source: www.nifs.go.kr/redtide/index.jsp).



113 Figure 6. Temporal occurrence of dominant macrozoobenthos species found in Masan Bay (Figure 1b) showing the periodic occurrence with information on certain ecological features of the corresponding species, viz., opportunistic species and indicator species of organic pollution (or enrichment) are highlighted; listed 27 identified species in Masan Bay over the past ~35 years, all reviewed articles listed.



Long-Term Benthic Community Changes in Masan Bay Although several pollution studies have documented the deterioration of water quality and sedimentary heavy metals or persistent organic pollutants since the 1990s, ecological damage or threat could not be fully demonstrated due to the lack of corresponding monitoring data. Although fewer data are available for the benthic community in Masan Bay (7 papers) compared with that in Gyeonggi Bay (19 papers), we tried to address certain long-term trends in benthic community structure. We targeted the dominant macrozoobenthos and analyzed opportunistic species and organic pollution or enrichment indicators over the past 40 years (Figure 6). The analysis of dominant species clearly indicated a continuous change in species composition over the past 40 years, simply reflecting dynamic environmental changes in the Masan Bay system. Notable characteristics of species composition are: 1) increasing proportions of opportunistic species, particularly since the late 1990s; 2) increasing proportions of organic pollution or enrichment indicators in more recent years; and 3) increasing proportions of polychaetes as dominant species. Interestingly, some polychaete species that are well-known opportunistic species and organic pollution indicators, such as Capitella capitata and Heteromastus filiformis, have been dominant species consistently for relatively long periods of time. These results strongly support the general evidence for the deterioration of sediment quality in Masan Bay. Notably, however, certain species, such as Theora lata (Mollusca) and Paraprionospio patients (Annelida), have occurred consistently during the entire 40-year period. Overall, the species composition and occurrence characteristics of dominant species generally reflect environmental deterioration in Masan Bay during the past 40 years. Relevant data, however, are limited.

Lake Sihwa Environmental Deterioration and Pollution Control Lake Sihwa, located on the west coast of Korea (Figure 1c), is an artificial lake created in 1994 by the construction of a sea dike (Figure 7). This area is among the most massively polluted coastal areas in Korea, due to large anthropogenic inputs from various sources (30, 32, 33, 37, 90). Lake Sihwa is surrounded by large cities (Shiheung, Ansan, and Hwasung), industrial areas, and rural areas. Industrial (chemical, wood, textiles, metals, foodstuffs, paper, and printing) complexes were developed in 1986. The sea dike was built to secure irrigation water for the region. However, heavily polluted inflows containing high concentrations of nutrients, organic matter, heavy metals, and organic pollutants from various sources (i.e., rural, urban, and industrial regions) were continuously introduced to Lake Sihwa, rapidly degrading the environmental quality. The Korean government initiated seawater circulation in 1997, then abandoned the plan to keep Lake Sihwa as a freshwater reservoir in 2000. To increase tidal mixing, the Sihwa Tidal Power Plant (STPP) was built in 2011. Lake Sihwa was designated as a SMA in 2000, and the EMMP has been implemented in 114 Loganathan et al.; Persistent Organic Chemicals in the Environment: Status and Trends in the Pacific Basin Countries II ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.

this area since 2001. Various measures to strengthen pollution controls, such as the construction and/or upgrading of WWTPs, sewer pipe system renovation, construction of wastewater collection channels and wetlands, and sediment dredging, have been taken. The TPLMS was introduced in 2013, with target water-quality levels of 3.3 ppm COD and 0.065 ppm TP (2013–2017).


Temporal Trends of Environmental Quality Improvement of Water Quality Seawater has been circulated through the water gate at Lake Sihwa since 1997, and the construction of the STPP has increased the amount of this circulation since 2011 (Figure 8). The water quality parameters (i.e., COD, DO, TN, TP, SS, and Chl-a in surface and bottom waters) obviously represent changes in water quality. COD values were less than 3.5 ppm before sea dike construction (1992–1993), and increased rapidly from 5.9 ppm to 17.4 ppm between 1994 and 1997. Thereafter, COD levels have tended to decrease, although fluctuations were observed. Of note, concentrations of DO in surface water have been maintained greater than 8 mg L−1 during the last ~20 years. Whereas relatively small concentrations of DO were found at bottom layer in 2004 (around 6 mg L−1), then tended to increase over time. Given that water stratification and DO depletion observed in bottom water of the Lake Sihwa, due to the embankment, were major environmental concerns, the increasing trend of DO apparently indicates the water quality enhancement. The concentrations of TN, TP, and Chl-a showed temporal pattern similar to that of COD, but large fluctuations in SS were noted. Although increased seawater circulation seems to have benefitted water quality in Lake Sihwa, it would be insufficient to improve water quality in the whole lake (91).

Temporal Changes in PTSs in Sediment of Lake Sihwa After its isolation by sea dike construction in 1994, Lake Sihwa showed the most PTS contamination among coastal areas in South Korea (91). The Lake Sihwa environments have deteriorated rapidly because of the insufficiency of wastewater treatment facilities and increasing pollutant loads from the surrounding industrial complexes and densely populated cities (32, 33). The water quality of Lake Sihwa has improved since seawater circulation was initiated through the water gate in 1997 and the tidal power plant began operation in 2011 (91). However, the quality of sediments contaminated by organic matter and PTSs has not been recovered fully (33).



116 Figure 7. Environmental issues and Korean government’s measures at Lake Sihwa (1984-present) (STPP: Sihwa Tidal Power Plant; WQ: water quality; MOE: Ministry of Environment; SCR EMMP: Sihwa Coastal Reservoir Environmental Management Master Plan; MOMAF: Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries; TPLMS: Total Pollution Load Management System; MLTM: Ministry of Land, Transportation and Maritime Affairs; COD: chemical oxygen demand; TP: total phosphorous).



Figure 8. Temporal variations in annual mean concentrations of (a) chemical oxygen demand (COD), (b) dissolved oxygen (DO), (c) total nitrogen (TN), (d) total phosphorus (TP), (e) suspended solids (SS), and (f) chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in surface and bottom seawater samples from Lake Sihwa, 1992–2015. Data are available in the online database, accessible at www.wamis.go.kr and www.meis.go.kr/rest/main. Seawater circulation rates during the corresponding period are provided as background information (TPLMS: Total Pollution Load Management System).

Studies of the distributions of various PTSs in sediments of inland creeks and the inner lake have frequently been conducted. PCDD/Fs, PCBs, PAHs, NPs, PBDEs, HBCDs, and SOs have been monitored mainly during the past two decades (Figure 9). Concentrations of PTSs were greater in sediments of inland creeks near the industrial complexes than in those of inner Lake Sihwa (15, 30, 33, 36, 37, 39). These findings indicate that PTSs have accumulated largely in sediments near the pollution sources and could not be transported to remote regions due to their hydrophobic nature (30, 33). Although data on the temporal distributions of PTSs in Lake Sihwa are limited and regular surveys have not been conducted, concentrations of PCDD/Fs, PCBs, and NPs showed decreasing trends associated with recent chemical control measures and regulations (Figure 9). However, large concentrations of PAHs and SOs continue to be found at some inland creek sites (33). Thus, follow-up studies of the occurrence of PTSs and their ecotoxicological effects in Lake Sihwa and adjacent industrial areas are urgently needed.



Figure 9. Temporal distributions of persistent toxic substances in sediments of Lake Sihwa. The green dotted lines indicate lower effective concentrations (interim sediment quality guidelines [ISQG] (73–75) or effects range low [ERL] (76)) and the red solid lines indicate higher effective concentrations (predicted effects level [PEL] (73, 74), effects range median [ERM] (76), or federal environmental quality guidelines [FEQG] (78, 79)). Benthic Community Responses As mentioned earlier, Lake Sihwa would be one representative area which has been experienced the heavy and steady environmental pollution, particularly due to the embankment as part of the reclamation project (91). The Incheon area (Gyeonggi Bay, including Lake Sihwa), together with Seoul City, supports more than half of the entire Korean population, and the adverse effects of human activities on nearby coastal environments have been significant. Fortunately, the Sihwa-Incheon area is the most intensively studied zone along the west coast of Korea; 19 papers have highlighted the ecosystem of Gyeonggi Bay since the first report was published in the 1970s (48). To ensure the comparability of the analysis of meta-data over a long period of time (>30 years), we focused on Polychaeta (represented by the most abundant dataset) in this review. We highlighted changes in species occurrence, composition, and duration, as well as certain prevailing indicator species in relation to several key environmental changes in the area surrounding Gyeonggi Bay (Figure 10). 118 Loganathan et al.; Persistent Organic Chemicals in the Environment: Status and Trends in the Pacific Basin Countries II ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


Figure 10. Temporal occurrence of Annelida species found in the Sihwa-Incheon area (Figure 1c) showing the periodic occurrence with information on certain ecological features of the corresponding species, viz., species being dominant, opportunistic, brackish, and organic polluted or enriched are highlighted; listed 98 identified species in the Sihwa-Incheon area over the past 40 years and timely environmental issues or events included as for additional information, all reviewed articles listed. During the past three decades, a total of 98 polychaete species have been reported in the Gyeonggi Bay area. The proportions of 34 opportunistic species increased in the 1990s (to more than half of the total occurring species). Rapid industrialization in the nearby Sihwa area, including the accelerated operations of the Banweol and Ansan industrial complexes and several grand reclamation projects in Gimpo, at the Incheon international airport, and in the Songdo economic zone since the 1980s, may have increasingly influenced such benthic community changes. Of note, the proportions of several species known as organic pollution or enrichment indicators (67) have also increased over time, reflecting possible long-term ecological changes due to developmental activities (key events are presented chronologically in Figure 7). In addition, few species have consistently occurred and/or dominated over the 30-year period, which supports 119 Loganathan et al.; Persistent Organic Chemicals in the Environment: Status and Trends in the Pacific Basin Countries II ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


the evidence for continual environmental changes in the area. About half of the total species have occurred only within decadal periods, indicating that the rate of species turnover has been rapid and suggesting that the benthic environment and/or community are unstable. Notably, two polychaete species, Magelona japonica and Sternaspis scutata, were found to occur consistently during the entire 30-year period. Ten species, including Diopatra sugokai, Glycera chirori, Nephtys polybranchia, Tharyx sp., Glycinde sp., and Heteromastus filiformis, were found to occur from the early 1980s to the present. Two opportunistic species, Heteromastus filiformis and Tharyx sp., showed relatively long-term occurrence and dominance. However, questions remain about whether these two species are endemic and have adjusted to the disturbed environment, or opportunistic species are identical having been chronically influenced by organic enrichment in the area (personal comm.). In-depth identification of the taxonomic characteristics of these species, in addition to analysis of the long-term distributions of corresponding populations, would be required to resolve such questions.

Acknowledgments This work was supported by the projects entitled “Development of Techniques for Assessment and Management of Hazardous Chemicals in the Marine Environment” and “Development of Integrated Estuarine Management System” funded by the Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries of Korea given to Prof. JSK.

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