CONCOMITANT PROBLEMS THAT ARISE with the .PRESENTATION of the SUBJECT MATTER in SECONDARY CHEMISTRY CARROL C. HALL
*
SprmgGeld High School. SpnngGeld, Illinois
T
HE teaching of chemistry a t the high-school level cannot remain static. The development of the study of education has tended to show that a knowledge of the subject matter alone is not enough. Powers states that the investigations in the field of science teaching that have been carried forward during the past fifteen years have been "concerned (1) with the evaluation of subject matter and methods used in current practices in teaching, (2) with the continuous revision of subject matter and methods, and (3) with the study of the learning process" (1). The reverberations of these studies have not passed over the field of high-school chemistry. In a recent discussion of what the high-school science teacher should know the following list was given (2). (1) Knowledge of science as a general field. (2) Some degree of specialization in one field.
(3) Knowledge developed in professional education.
(4) Knowledge of the pr?fessional literature of the craft. (5) Knowledge of the science textbwks that have been developed for use in the secondary field. (6) Working knowledge of the equipment needed. (7) Acquaintance with familiar applications of the science taught. (8) Sound knowledge of current literature.
From the foregoingstatements it can be assumed that the qualifications of those who propose to teach are constantly being raised. With all of the factors of teacher-education in mind the present study has been developed on the grounds of its possible contributions to educational knowledge. By objective means a significant list of problems that accompany the teaching of the subject matter in highschool chemistry was developed. This list, as determined, can serve as a basis of a syllabus to be used as
follows: (a) in the organization of a course of study for the training of teachers of secondary chemistry, the course to be applicable to either prospective or inservice teachers; (b), in the possible outlining of a professional textbook on the general subject of the teaching of high-school chemistry. To obtain the list of problems reported approximately four hundred note cards were obtained from the issues of the JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL EDUCATION ( 3 ) ; and School Science and Mathematics ( 4 ) that have been published since September, 1920 through June, 1938. A similar method is also mentioned by J. 0. Frank (5). The JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL EDUCATION began publication in January, 1924; whereas School Science and Mathematics bas been published continuously throughout the entire period covered. Concerning each article the note cards contained the following information: (1) the author's name, (2) the title of the article, (3) the publication source with the volume and date of issuance together with the page references, and (4) notations as to the general information relative to the teaching of chemistry at the secondary level. It was found that the articles could be classified into five general divisions or areas. Each area was determined to be a comprehensive and significant aspect of the teaching problems of high-school chemistry. Each of the areas will be discussed a t length as this report develops. Each area was further divided into its elements or subdivisions. These were ranked according to their frequency and are discussed in that order. The limitations of this procedure for obtaining a list of the concomitant problems are as follows. (1) The total number of cards included may not represent all the articles that could have been included. They represent a personal selection. (2) The selection of the general areas to form the major divisions and the further sdection of the subdivisions may be questioned. Here again personal opinion is a determining factor. (3) As indicated by the title, the articles selected referred only to chemistry instruction a t the secondary level.
Nearly one-half of all the cards collected relative to the study were in this area. The large number of articles published relative to the determination of items relating to the broader aspects of the chemistry course would seem to indicate an unusual amount of critical thinking being done along philosophical lines, especially during the past few years. A GENERAL DISCUSSION OF EACH OF THE SUBDIVISIONS
IN THE AREA O F COURSE ORGANIZATION
( A ) Proposed Bases of Course Reorganization.-A review of the articles written on this subject indicates that there is a general dissatisfaction among teachers with the traditional college preparatory chemistry course. It also indicates that despite the restrictions of the accrediting agencies some experimentation has taken place. The following bases for course reorganization have either been proposed or put into actual practice: That the high-school chemistry course be reorganized on a pandemic or cultural basis. (The majority of these pandemic proposals refer to courses based on the practical applications of chemistry. Others lean more toward building the course on chemical fundamentals. There were all shades of interpretation for the termspandemic or cultural.) That s~ecialcourses be ornanized for hieh-school chemistry. (These proposal; uwally r c f l ~ c r local conditions. They refcr ro industnrl rhemisrry, comtnerrinl chemistry. the chcmiirry of co,~n~.tics,lmusrhuld chemistry or orher similar titles.) That advanced caurses in chemistry be organized. (These proposals usually come from teachers in the larger high schools. A second-year chemistry course is suggested to he organized about elepentary qualitative or quantitative analysis.) .. That a couke an minimum essentials be organized. (These proposals lean toward a course of chemistry fnndamentals. This tends to eliminate the practical aspects.) The recommendation of separate courses for boys and girls. (Throughout the period covered by the study this reorganization of high-school chcpimistry is suggested. The basis for this proposal arises from the possible differences in the needs of boys and girls.)
Other course reorganization proposals are listed as follows: (1) courses organized on basic chemical fundamentals only; (2) on the project basis; (3) two separate courses (college and non-college preparatory) ; (4) courses suited for both cellege and non-college PROBLEMS THAT ARISE IN THE AREA OF COURSE pupils; (5) courses emphasizing the unit organization; ORGANIZATION (6) courses planned on the contract basis; (7) courses The tabulation of the cards relating to the area of emphasizing the historical aspects of chemistry; and course organization revealed that their subjects cen- (8) a course designed for consumers. As can be observed from the foregoing discussion the tered around eight subdivisions. These divisions listed problems that arise with the organization of the highin order of their rank were as follows. school chemistry course reflect a variety of educational Proposed Bases for Course Reorganization. purposes. There is no general agreement other than The Aims and Objectives of High-School Chemistry. The Articulation of College and High-School Chemistry. those imposed by the college entrance requirements. ( B ) Aims and Objectives in Course Organization.The Selection and Choosing of Materials of Instruction There has been a constant re-checking of the aims and (Textboaks, Manuals, and so forth). The Determination of Course Content. objectives of secondary chemistry. The problems on The Application of the Findings of Education and the aims and objectives in course organization center Psychology. around the setting up of and adjustment to the followCurriculum Problems. ing ideas: The Trends in High-School Chemistry.
(1) The adaptation of high-school chemistry t o the everyday life of the pupil. (2) The adaptation of high-schwl chemistry t o social needs of the pupil. (3) The development of a "cultural" chemistry course. (4) Studies evaluating the present aims and objectives. (5) Statements of course objectives in terms of the basic principles and fundamentals of chemistry.
The problems that arise in tlie selection of aims and objectives show a definite trend in the attempt to make the teaching of high-school chemistry more meaningful to the pupils who elect to take it. There is, however, a difference of opinion as just what is the basis on which to build the pandemic or cultural courses. (C) The Articulation of High-School and College Chemistry.-Throughout the entire period covered by the present study there has been a sustained interest in the problems involved. The problems center around the following categories: (1) Studies measuring the degree of success obtained in college by those (a)who have had and (b) those who have not had high-schwl chemistry. (2) Proposed readjustments in the high-school course to articulate more closely 'with the college work. (3) Exsminatians of the requirements in college chemistry. (4) Criticisms of the teaching of high-school chemistry. (5) The overlapping of college and high-school chemistry. (6) Statements of the responsibilities of the colleges.in relation to these problems.
The material presented in this connection is both conflicting and confusing. The possible solution lies in the direction of redefining the high-school program in terms of a general education rather than for college preparation; a t the same time the colleges adopting methods of determining qualifications for admission other than the following of certain prescribed highschool courses. (D) The Selection and Choosing of the Materials of Instruction.-The average teacher has neither the time nor the ability to organize his course,o,f instruction in its entirety. As a consequence, he rehes very largely on published materials, such as textbooks, laboratory manuals, and workbooks. The articles comprising this group show a process of evaluating this type of material. Problems of selecting or evaluating a textbook, Studies of the c o n t i t s of textbooks. Studies of the materials in laboratory manuals. Special aid material, such as: mathematical aids, special texts, pamphlets, charts, and so forth. Other suggestions include, measuring the contents of instructional materials in terms of the amount of biochemistry, organic, historical material, and so forth. included.
This constant evaluation of instructional materials has no doubt brought about desirable improvements in the materials of instruction. (E) The Determination of Course Content.-The problems that come within the scope of this topic are entirely dependent upon what the individual teacher decides with reference to pupils taught, and the extent
to which the chemistry course is to be developed. Our list of problems for this division includes: (1) The place of qualitative and quantitative analysis in high-school chemistry. (2) How far should the inclusion of the new findings in science go in high-school chemistry? (3) The need for studies of the difficulties of certain subject matter in the high-school course. (4) Such questions as: the quantity of biochemistry and of organic chemktry to he taught; what shall be the relative amounts of theoretical and practical chemistry; and the adaptation of course content to local needs.
A perusal of the above list will show how dependent the choice of the course content is on the broader philosophical aspects of course organization. ( F ) The Application of the Findings of Education and Pyscho1ogy.-The study of chemistry has felt the impact of the recent development of studies of education and psychology. More and more the articles refer to the implications of the findings in those fields for the teaching of chemistry. In general they center around (1) educational modifications of teaching concepts and (2) recognition of the pyschological factors that influence the teaching process. A third should be noted a t this point, that is, the recognition of individual differences and the teaching adjustments for them. (G) Curriculum Problems.-The curriculum problems of high-school chemistry as shown by a study of the periodical articles apparently concentrate a t two points. The first is, how can the course be made to articulate in a better fashion with the other subjects in the school program? The second is that of defining the place that chemistry has in the secondary-school program. Insother words, shall'it be taught as a separate subject, or shall it become fused in a more functional program? (H) The Trends in High-School Chemistry.-A few of the articles that were included in the area of course organization were concerned with trends in the field of high-school chemistry. Such artMes are valuable for teachers inasmuch as they tend to give a more comprehensive picture of what is happening. They put together the bits of the puzzle and give a more complete picture. SUMMARY OP THE SECTION 08 COURSE ORGANIZATION
A review of the ~roblemsfound in this area may be su&narized in theLfollowingmanner. From the problems of course reorganization it was indicated that no general agreement has been reached as to the exact basis on which to build high-school chemistm. There is a tendency to develor, them for cultural ~urposes. justhow this is to he done remains an unsolved question. Perhaps the most clearly defined bases ar; those that tend toward the practical applications and others that lean toward the fundamental scientific concepts in chemistry. As t o the aims and objectives of course organization, there can be no doubt after surveying the literature that the emphasis is away from those established by the college entrance requirements toward newer objectives
pointed to the development of the whole personality of the individual regardless of future educational plans. The problems relative to the articulation of college and high-school chemistry have shown how definitely the high-school course of previous years and particularly that of chemistry has been set up merely as a stepping stone to higher education. Recent work has led to a reconsideration of high-school objectives and will eventually lead to the adoption of different entrance practices by the institutions of higher learning. The selection and choosing of the materials of instruction will be basically affected by the predominate philosophy or purpose of the high school. With a shift of course emphasis and an honest realization of what can be actually accomplished by the high-school pupil new materials will be forthcoming. The articles in this division indicate that we are in a transitional stage. The materials of instruction show the influence of the past, the indecision of the present, and glimpses as to future possibilities. The determination of course content like the choice of instructional materials reveals problems born out of doubt. The abundance of possible content in the field of chemistry makes the selection of subject matter for the secondary level difficult. Perhaps the most evident tendency a t the present time is that of including too much content. Evidence is a t hand that the educational aspects of chemistry teaching and the application of psychological concepts are being felt in high-school chemistry course organization. The organization of materials on the unit plan and the inclusion of learning devices indicate wholesome influences. Perhaps the most clear-cut evidence is in the recognition of individual differences of pupils. The major curriculum problem in secondary chemistry is the coordination of the subject with other materials in the school program. Still another problem looms not far distant; that is, will chemistry keep its identity as a separate subject or becorn%merged or fused as a part of a generalized science program? The reference to trends bears no problematic situations, but it does afford a general overview of the problems of course organization as a whole.
(8) What do we mean by functional or utilitarian courses? (9) What is a general education? How can chemistry contribute? (10) Shall special courses he encouraged, or shall the emphasis be placed an a single all-round course? (11) ShaU the chemistry course be extended one more year? (12) Is it possible to organize a single chemistry course to serve the purposes of both the non-college and the college preparatory pupils? Or, shall two separate courses be organized? (13) How much chemical history shall be included in the highschool course? (14) Will chemistry lose its identity as a separate course and become fused or merged into a generalized science program?
( B ) Problems Related to Aims and Objectives How necessary is chemistry in the high-schwl curriculum? Does chemistry need to be more socialized? What are the social values of high-school chemistry? What are the objectives of the present course? Is it meeting the needs of the pupils? ( 5 ) How can the high-school chemistry course hetter serve the purpose of a "liberal" education? (6) What chemistry should every adult American know? (7) What is cultural chemistry?
( C ) Problems in the Articulation of College and High-School Chemistry (1) How can we get a closer relationship between college and high-school chemistry? (2) How can colleges or universities recognize proficiency in chemistry? (3) How can the parallelism between high-school and college chemistry best he overcome? (4) What is the contribution of high-school chemistry toward success in the college chemistry course?
(D) Problems in the Selection atld Choice of Materials of Instruction .. (1) How, when, and where gradelaboratory notebooks? (2) How closely do the aims and content of laboratory manuals correlate? (3) How much history; organic chemistry; or mathematics should he included in an elementary textbook? (4) What should be the basis of the teacher's selection of a high-school chemistry textbook? (5) What special teaching aids does the instructor need? (6) Why use textbooks in elementary chemistry?
..
(E) Problems Arising in the Determination of Course Content
T I E PROBLEMS THAT ARISE IN THE AREA OF COURSE ORGANIZATION STATED AS QUESTIONS~
( A ) Proposed Course Reorganizations (1) How much "consumer science" can he taught in highschool chemistry? (2) What is the value of the unit-method organization? (3) How shall the pandemic course be organized? (4) What are the basic principles of chemistry? (5) Shall the development of course be differentiated for boys and girls in high-school chemistry? (6) What minimum standards of subject matter should be set up? (7) What are the new courses in high-school chemistry?
'
(1) Are we wasting our chemistry &dentss time with factual materials? (2) How far should the teacher develop the theories of chemistry? (3) What material shall we select for rhe elementary course? (4) Do we know the relative difficulty of the topics we are teaching in elementvy chemistry? (5) How much of the special chemical fields should we try to cover? (6) HOWmuch shall we adapt the course t o fit local needs? (7) What is the place of qualitative and quantitative analysis in high-school chemistry?
As nearly as possible the summary problems for each area
( F ) Problems in the Application of the Findings of Education and Psychology
shall be stated as questions and in as many instances as practical taken from the titles of the various artides reviewed for this study.
(1) How can we meet individual differences in high-schwl chemistry?
1
(2) Shall we segregate the pupils according to their abilities? I n the classroom? I n the laboratory? (3) What shall be the basis of segregation? (4) How can we apply psychology to chemical education? (5) What are the educational values of high-schwl chemistry? (6) Will a study of pupil errors in chemistry aid in the determination of our educational emphasis? (7) What were some of the educational and psychological misconce~tionsin the early teaching of high-school chemistry?
(G) Curriculum Problems (1) Can chemistry become a part of a science sequence? (2) Whst is the place of chemistry in the high-school proera,"?
(3) Can chemistry he taught as a related subject? (4) What are some of the difficulties of curriculum construction in high-school chemistry?
(H) Trends in High-School Chemistry (1) . . What are the trends in high-schwl chemistry organization? (2) What are the implica~ionsof these trends? PROBLEMS THAT ARISE IN THE AREA OF COURSE PRESENTATION
The problems that are discussed in this area are among the most significant in the development of the present study. Those that were discussed in Area I were important but bordered on an area where perhaps the ordinary teacher may not have a great deal of personal control. Those to be discussed a t this point are directly related to what the teacher does in the classroom and laboratory. They are directly associated with the learning process. James Harvey Robinson in discussing education had this to say about the learning process (6). "There is already a vast,literature of education, most of it surprisingly dull and pointless. A great part of it has to do with vague ideas of what should be learned in order to mold character, or get on in the world, or become good men and women. Then there is much attention devoted to teaching and school administration. All this is easy compared with attempts t o penetrate the mystery of learning. This comes and gws in mysterious ways and eludes calculation. Teaching mafiasten learning; i t may also block it or kill it outright. or sometimes just render it comatose."
In commenting on this subtle process of learning, another writer has referred to i t as the "Miracle of Learning" (7). All the items discussed in this area are related to the learning process and the chemistry teacher's especial contributions. There are four general subdivisions of the area. They relate to (1) classroom problems, (2) laboratory problems, (3) problems of general method, and (4) the controversial discussions around the relative merits of individual laboratory exercises and demonstration experiments. DISCUSSIONS O F THE S W D M S I O N S I N AREA I1 That Arise in the Classroom.-Over Problems (A) fifty of the articles in Area I1 dealt with problems that arise in the classroom. Listed according to their frequency rank they are as follows. GENERAL
(1) Problems involving the mathematics of chemistry. (2) Problems involving demonstration experiments. (3) Problems arising with the presentation of theories in chemistry. (4) Problems arising with the teaching of f o r m u h , equations, and chemical nomenclature. (5) The problems of science errors in teaching. (6) Problems arising with the development of desirable study habits in pupils. (7) Problems of overcoming poor teaching conditions. (8) Problems around the improvement of lesson plans. (9) Problems of helping the beginning pupil. (10) Problems relatine- t o the Drecedence of laboratom and classroom recitation. (11) A miscellaneous group of problems relating t o diagnostic teaching, analysis problems, and the physical arrangement of the classroom.
The foregoing gives a list of problems that may reach outside thk chemistry class~situation. The -list of questions a t the end of this section will enlarge the concept and range of the classroom problems. (B) Problems That Arise in the Laboratory.-In addition to the problems of classroom teaching the chemistry teacher has the extra problems that come from laboratory instruction. In the articles written by persons engaged in the teaching of the subject the following problems were listed. (1) Problems of developing the scientificmethod and the scientific attitude in the laboratory.
(2) Problems in developing student apparatus for laboratory use.
(3) . . Problems arising. in developing - .minimum equipment ~
(4)
(5) (6)
(7) (8)
lists. Problems of maintaining laboratory work on limited budgets. Problems in the handling and care of materials and apparatus. : I Prablems.concerning the functional value of the laboratory. Problems of student segregation in the laboratory. Problems of projects in the laboratory.
That the laboratory is no longer an accessory to the teaching process, but an important agency in the process, is evidenced from the pr6blems stated. The desire for more effective teaching is a basic reason for the intensive study of what should be done in the laboratory. ( C ) Problems of General Method.-The problems of general method may be grouped into two general divisions. The first is relative t6 studies of the effectiveness of various methods of instruction. The second is a list of outlines for the uses of various methods. As to the point of popularity there is equal opinion on contract and unit methods (based on a number of articles). The project method was popular during the early part of the period covered by the study, but a t the present time projects tend to be regulated to the field of course enrichment. The studies do not show any outstanding superiority of any of the general methods. It must be assumed, then, that they are experimental processes and suitable devices for teacher innovation in teaching. It is not the purpose of the present discussion to carry reference to the problems of general method any further than to point out that there are
What arithmetic is needed in first-year chemistry? Can mathematics he used to clarify chemical concepts? Which are the essential and which are the suoolementarv .. calculationc in chcmistry? How can we teach ratio and proportion? What is the order of preccdcnce in laboratory and rrritation work?
certain changes in them being adapted to the teaching of chemistry a t the secondary level.
( D ) Laboratory versus Demonstration Problems.This is designated as a subdivision although it crosses both classroom and laboratory problems. However, it has been an important and controversial point of discussion in the field of chemistry and in the field of science education as a whole. The articles relating to this field become more meaningful when they are studied relative to their chronological appearance. The early articles revealed that the general laboratory practices were not securing the results sought and gave almost unanimous support to the idea of all-demonstration work in high-school chemistry classes. This view was followed by a period of evaluating both the individual laboratory method and the demonstration technic. At the present time merit is recognized in both procedures. As a consequence there probably will be developed a more intelligently planned laboratory course in addition to improved demonstrations.
Laboratory Problems m a t is the function of the lnhuratory' Should the lal,uratory he used as the center of instrurtion? How can scientific ability be improved in the laboratory? Dws the laboratory work belong in high-school cbemistry? What are the fundamentals of laboratory instruction? How can we improve the efficiency of laboratory work? Shallwe segregate pupils of different abilities in the laboratory? What methods should be used in the laboratory? Shall we precede laboratory work with a demonstration in laboratory technic? How can the laboratory be maintained on a reduced hudget? What are some economies that can be maintained in the laboratory? What is the minimum eaui~ment for a hieh-school & . laboratory? What kind of balances should be used in high-school chemistry? What are the safety devices needed in the laboratory? What are some good methods of handling materials and apparatus in the lahoratory? What are good project-experiments for the laboratory? What are some imorovements that can be made in the apparatus designed for student work? What are the achievements of the pupil desired in the laboratory?
SUMMARY OF AREA I1 IN QUESTION FORM
-
Classroom Problems How can diagnostic teachidg be done? What is a good lecture-demonstration experiment? What are good working models? What items in the elementary course are best demonstrated? What are some good, simple demonstrations that will illustrate chemical theories and fundamentals? Why demonstrate experiments? What will the lecture-demonstration not accomplish? Should the pupils write up lecture-demonstration experiments? What are the educational and psychological characteristics of the lecture-demonstration? What are good methods of teaching oxidation and reduction equations? What methods are to be used in the teaching of writing equations? What can we expect from the high-school student in formula and equation writing? How can we help the beginner t o grasg, formulas and chemical nomenclature? How have the names of the elements been derived? How can the ouoil's . studv habits be imoroved? IYhat arc the study mcthuds of our pupils' Ilow m n r e usc student topics and reports> Iluw can we handle l a r ~ ecla5ses' How can recitation he improved? How can lesson plans be improved? What type of classroom is best? How can we best introduce the pupil to the study of chemistry? How can we aid the beginner? Where can the teacher obtain information of the newer discoveries? What are the difficulties in teaching definitions? What aids in teaching theoretical concepts? How can the electronic theory be used in teaching valence? What are modern methods in teaching chemistry? How can the periodic table be used in teaching? How can science errors be avoided in teachine? How are graphs used in teaching chemistry? What are good methods in presenting and teaching the metric system? ~~
~
.
(C) Problems of General Method .. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
What is the relative value of each general method? What is the unit-method of teaching? Evaluate it. How far can we go in teaching by the project method? What is the contract plan of teaching? Is there another method to be used?
(D) Laboratory versus Demonstration Problems (1) What do the research studies show about this controversy? (2) For what type of learning is each method best suited? (3) What price laboratory instruction? (4) How can the technic of demonstrating be improved? (5) How can individual laboratory instruction he improved? (6) What is the history of this controversy? (7) What is the latest thought an this problem? PROBLEMS THAT ARISE IN THE AREA OF COURSE ENRICHMENT
Modern teaching has extended its activities beyond the pages of a single textbook. The activity movement in education has encouraged the use of all sorts of devices as aids to the learning process. The chemistty teacher of today takes advantage of all sorts of aids to enrich the subject program. The motives for the use of such devices may be varied but the "humanizing" effect that i t has on the teaching process and on the making of life situations in the classroom cannot be construed otherwise than to have a wholesome effect on the teaching procedure.
Many of these aids bring a closer relationship between the school and the community it serves. In a number of the articles reviewed the teachers stated that these extra teaching materials were developed with the idea of selling chemistty to the public a t large. By far the largest single justification for course enrichment is to capitalize on pupil interest. When this is done in a wholesome manner there can be no doubt as to its ultimate beneficial effect on both teacher and pupil.
To improve the work of the second semester T o recapitulate on chemical principles. To give pupils a notion of research. TOsupplement term reports or essays. For use of after-school time. PROBLEMS OF AREA I11 SUMMARIZED
WEIAT A R E THE DEVICES USED FOR COURSE ENRICHMENT?
A tabulation of the devices used for course eruichment showed that twenty-three different items were used. The list follows, arranged in order of their approximate frequency. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23)
Projects. Chemistry clubs. Chemistry exhibits. Stunts and novel experiments. Open-house programs. Articles on unusual chemistry topics. Special qualitative and quantitative experiments. Student research. , Working models. Posters. Use of pamphlet literature. Bulletin hoards. Assembly programs. The science fair. Chemistry scrapbooks. Industrial motion pictures. Studying the names of the elements. Using chemical history. Vocational guidance programs. Visual education. Safety education. The chemistry library. Inspection trips.
Any one of the foregoing topics could be well used as a basis for a general discussion. To make the extra work have meaning, time and thought must he given to it in order that its educational values will be developed. E WHY DO TEACHERS USE THESE DEVICES?
A survey of the periodical cards indicates that teachers use the enrichment devices for a wide variety of reasons. Broadly speaking they are using them to solve certain teaching problems. Below are listed some of the reasons given for projects and other devices described. (1) (2) (3) (4) . . (5) (6) 7 )
(hl I
(10) (11) (12)
To fill out a t the end of the course. To make the course more functional. To enlarge chemical concepts. To varv teacbinx., orocedure. To aid t h e indiwdunl; i. e.. sustain interrrr. To cooperate a t t h the general school promam To link up the course with the O U L ~ world. C As supplrn~enraryteaching. To aid iu cnial dcvrlopment To avoid too rnurh sucrialiration. For course motivation. To recognize lacal conditions.
.
How can we duplicate some of the classical experiments of cbemistry? What models of certain chemical plants can we make? What avenue of special inter-t does the pupil have? What are some easy projects t o do? What are the educational values of cbemistry projects? Who should do projects? Only the better chemistry students? How can the project be related t o local industries? Can projects bring in ideas not studied in class work? Shall they be individual or group projects? What is a good class project? What about student projects as part of consumer education? Can projects illustrate chemical principles? What method shall be used in developing the project? Shall the pupil report on the project? To the teacher? To the class? What are the sources of project material? Teacher list? Textbook? A cumulative list? Reference books? How can we use the pamphlets issued by industries, the government, and other sources? What are some spectacular experiments? How can we use chemical magic? To what use shall the spectacular experiments be put? What is student research? How is student research different from projects? Should the chemistry club program correlate with the regular course of study? What can the chemistry club do? Is the higb-school chemistry club wortb-while? What are the characteristics of a live chemistry club? What are some activities suggested for the chemistry club? .. Why make chemistry posters? How can the chemistry bulletin board be a teaching device? Should the poster be a regular assignment? I s the chemistry exhibit a supplementary teaching , ., device? Shall we use the commercial exhibit materials? How can we use the chemical exhibit as a project review? How can cbemistry exhibits be used in the small laboratory? How can chemistry be made t o contribute to the school assembly? What part can chemistry play in an open-house program? How can interest be stimulated in chemistrv? Is there value in a chemistry scrapbook? How shall we use industrial motion pictures? Does the industrial motion picture meet the standards of visual education? -. \\'hat are some unusual chemistry topics? \!'hark in a name? (A study of the chcrniral rlcnwnts ) H o w can the history of chemistry bc used to rnrich the course? Wbat is the place of the cbemistry teacher in the vocational guidance program? What procedure should be used in vocational guidance? What is the minimum equipment for visual education? Name the different kinds of visual equipment. What are the opportunities for safety education in chemistry instruction? How can qualitative and quantitative analysis be used for course enrichment? Wbat are some readable general references on chemistry? ~
(411) (41) (12) (43) (44) (45) (46) (47) (48) (49)
~~~~~
What is the teacher's part in building a chemical library? Where can a good chemistry hook list be obtained? Why ask for extensive outside reading? How can chemistry be sold to the community? How can the most value he received from chemical inspection trips? (55) What are the characteristics of a well-planned inspection trip?
(50) (51) (52) (53) (54)
PROBLEMS THAT ARISE IN THE AREA OF COURSE EVALUATION
During the past few years the high-school testing program has been subjected to close study. The development of standardized, objective tests has led to an improved program of evaluation. It is of interest to note the shift of emphasis that has taken place in the testing program: from the essay type to the new-type examination; from the emphasis on factual information to attempts to measure the more elusive factors of attitudes, types of thinking, and uses of the scientific method. In the case of chemistry instruction, the last statement can be interpreted to refer to the attempts to measure chemical facts and learnings in terms of the scientific attitude and method. New uses have also been found for the testing program. Tests are no longer used to determine course grades only but are also used as teaching devices. They are used for diagnostic purposes and for measuring comparative achievement. Attempts are also being made to develop devices to measure and evaluate other aspects of the chemistry program. Tests are now designed to measure laboratory technic and to ascertain the pupil's knowledge of other basic skills. In general, tests may be used by the alert teacher for the following purposes: (1) to get a total picture of the pupil (the pupil's general intelligence, knowledge of mathematics or reading ability), (2) to measure and diagnose the pupil's progress through the presentation of the course of instruction, and (3) to measure the pupil's general achievement a t the completion of the course of study. By these means the tzacher has a complete, continuous pattern of pupil growth, not an occasional sporadic sampling of the pupil's ability to repeat factual information. For convenience of discussion the periodical articles relating to the evaluation program will be discussed in groups. This grouping is purely arbitrary but eliminates discussion on twenty-nine separate titles. DISCUSSION ON VARIOUS PHASES OF THE EVALUATION PROGRAM
( A ) The Residual Learnings.-The question of what is retained after a course of study and how long i t will be retained is of great educational importance. This question has been studied from a number of angles. Attempts have been made to see what has been retained, how long, and what kinds of materials are retained best. The more encouraging results of recent experiments show that the retention of the application of principles was greater than factual knowledge.
This retention was measured over a period of some time. (B) Testing for SfiecialLearnings.-More encouraging have been the attempts to test for things other than factual knowledge. The articles show the following test ideas: testing for laboratory technic, for equation mastery, for chemical aptitude, for mastery of chemical principles, and for general achievement. (C) Types of Tests.-Interest has centered around the development of new-type (objective) tests, tests combining both new-type and essay examination features, and novel quizzes. The last are in form of the game idea in testing for chemical facts. (D) Uses of Tests.-In addition to the uses cited in the introductory paragraph two others may be mentioned: (1) the use of tests to develop a point system for stimulating pupil interest, and (2) the use of tests for instructional purposes. The point of view in the last instance is that we can teach by use of the testing procedure. ( E ) Studies of Testing Programs.-These studies in general relate to the inspection of formal examination program practices. They are concerned with the chemical contests, the mental processes involved in entrance examinations, and analyzing the questions asked in formal examinations. (F) Test Experimentation and Criticism.-Articles included in this group include such items as: constructive criticisms of testing procedures, reports of experimental testing programs, and analysis of experimental tests. To paraphrase, this group of reported studies is concerned with evaluating the evaluation procedures. SUMMARY OF TAE LPROBLEMS IN'THE AREA OF COURSE EVALUATION
( A ) The Residual Learnings (1) How long do students retain what they have learned from high-school chemistry? (2) What is the residue of high-school knowledge that is utilizable in college chemistry? (3) What type of learnings are best retained?
(B) Testing for Special Learnings (1) What are the measurable outcomes of laboratory instruction? (2) How can we measure lahoratorytecbnic? (3) How well do the standardized chemical tests measure achievement? (4) What are the problems involved in the measurement of achievement in high-school chemistry? (5) How can we test for mastery of chemical principles? (6) Can we forecast chemical aptitude? (7) Of what value are tests in writing chemical equations? (8) What are the best types for equation testing?
(C) Types of Tests (1) Can we combine the essay test with the new-type test? (2) What has been the success of the objective test in highschool chemistry? (3) What type of objective tests are most desirable for highschool chemistry? (4) What bas been the history of the development of the new-type tests and what is their present status? (5) Are novel quizzes good instructional devices?
(D) Uses of Tests
Outlines for courses to train chemistry teachers. (2) Lists of qualifications for high-school chemistry teachers. (3) Studies analyzing present teacher-training courses. (4) Articles citing things ordinarily missed in teacher training. ( 5 ) Trends and tendencies in teacher training. (6) Discussion of methods training in chemistry.
(1)
(1) Does the point system of grading increase pupil participation? (2) How can we use pupil errors on tests to improve the instruction? (3) Is there instructional value in having the pupils correct their own test papers?
(E) Studies of Testing Progiams (1) What lessons are to be learned from formal testing programs? (2) What mental processes are involved in formal test pragrams? (3) Do the mental processes involved in formal test programs change from year to year? (4) Do the questions asked in formal testing programs reilect the type of chemistry being taught?
(F) Test Experimentation and Criticism (I) What are the problems involved in construction and validating examinations? (2) How can we measure the use of the scientific method? (3) How can we measure the ability to interpret experimental data? (4) What do the experimental studies show about the different types of objective questions? (5) What types of chemical learnings have been recently shown to be best retained? PROBLEMS THAT ARISE I N THE AREA OF TEACHER PREPARATION
As the concept of education grows and it 'is no longer identified with one particular aspect of the development of the individual it will he seen that the prohlems of teacher preparation will tend also to grow in number and in importance. An examination of twenty-three periodical articles published since 1920 that relate to the prohlems of teacher preparation shows that they fall in two major groups. They are ( 1 ) the problems associated with teacher growth and development, and (2) problems associated with the training of teachers. *.
( A ) Problems of Teacher Growth and De~elopment.The problems of this division may be briefly described as arising from the following aspects: (1) the development of a professional attitude among teachers, (2) the problems of self-growth, and (3) prohlems of teacher research. The development of a professional attitude among high-school chemistry teachers is a subject for a great deal of attention. This problem resolves itself into many aspects all of which cannot he discussed a t this time. Self-growth is desired in teachers. Self-growth may be promoted by many schemes. The teacher may use the resources of his or her own immediate surroundings to promote this aspect. Teacher research may be an answer to in-service development. ( B ) Problems Associated with Teacher-train in^.t he periodical articles reviewed disclosed an extensive list of problems in this division.
A casual examination of the discussions in this field will show that the base of teacher training for chemistry is broadening-that the courses not only ask for preparation in subject matter and practice in teaching but also for knowledge in other fields such as education, psychology, and the history of chemistry. SUMMARY OF THE PROBLEMS I N THE AREA OF TEACHER PREPARATION
( A ) Problems of Teacher Growth and Develop-
ment
(1) How can the professional spirit among chemistry teachers be promoted? (2) What are some self-helps for teacher growth? (3) What are some outstanding problems inchemical education in which the teacher can do research? (4) How can the educational and semi-scientific journals be used for research and for self-growth problems?
( B ) Problems Associated with Teacher Training (1) What are some gaod qualifications for a teacher of highschool chemistry? (2) What qualifications are particularly desirable in the beginning teacher? (3) How are teachers being trained in college for teaching high-school chemistry? (4) What are the trends and r&dencies in the teaching of chemistry in normal schools and teachers' colleges? (5) Do we need standards in courses in the teaching of chemistry? (6) What are some of the unstressed essentials in training teachers for elementary chemistry? (7) Are these prohlems to be considered in teacher education; teacher load; salaries; other subjects to be taught; a general survey of working conditions? (8) How are methods in teaching taught in the educating of prospective high-school chemistry teachers? (9) What are some good basic references for prospective teachers? (10) What would be a good outline for a chemistry teacher's training course?
-
CONCLUSION
During the past few years there has developed a considerable amount of literature dealing with the improvement of the high-school chemistry course. This material has appeared in the issues of various science education periodicals. It has been hoped that through a study such as this the material so published could be gathered to some extent into a more logical and rational organization; once this arrangement has been perfected that it would better serve the purpose of the high-school chemistry teacher, the students and instructors of science education, and the individual seeking research prohlems in its use and understanding.
249 LITERATURE CITED
(1) FREEMAN.e6 al., "The scientific movement in education." Thirty-seventh yearbook, Part 11, p. 138, National Societv for the Studv of Education. Public School Publishinn ~ o m ~ a n~ldominaton. v. ~lli&is, 1926. (2) W A & ~ , "what should-the high school science teacher know?" Education, 56, 405-7 (Mar., 1936). (3) JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL EDUCATION, pubhshed by the Division of Chemical Education of the American Chemical Society, Easton, Pennsylvania. ~~>
~
(4) SCHOOL SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS, pxblishcd by the Central Association of Science and Mathematics Teachers, Inc.. 450 A h n a i ~Street. Menasha. Wisconsin. (.5.) FRANK, "The t&ching of high-school chemistry." ~.1. 0. Frank and Sons, Oshkash, W k m s i n , 1932, p. iii. (6) R o e r ~ s o ~"The , human comedy," Harper & Brothers, New York City. 1937, p. 355. (7) . Atlonlic Monthlr. . . MURSELL."The miracle of learning." 160, 7 3 3 4 1 (June, 1935).
