Visions, Achievements, and Challenges of the ... - ACS Publications

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Visions, Achievements, and Challenges of the Division of Chemical Education during the Early Years1,2 Theodor Benfey The Chemical Heritage Foundation and Guilford College, 909 Woodbrook Drive, Greensboro, NC 27410; [email protected]

The American Chemical Society (ACS) acquired the magazine Chemistry in 1964 and asked me to edit it as a publication for high school-level and introductory college-level chemistry students and their teachers. I was surprised to learn that I would be editing Volume 37 (Figure 1). The first issue had appeared in 1927 when it was called The Chemistry Leaflet. Its founder and editor was Pauline Beery Mack and the sponsor of the magazine in some of its early years was the ACS Division of Chemical Education (DIVCHED), which also published the Journal of Chemical Education. The DIVCHED had been formed in 1924. The events preceding its formation are detailed by James Bohning in the article immediately prior to this one (1a). Significant new material has become available,3 which adds to the published material on DIVCHED’s early years (1). Earliest Years: Neil Gordon and Francis P. Garvan The amazing sequence of events that followed the founding of the DIVCHED in 1924 is presented in this article. Neil Gordon of the University of Maryland, the new DIVCHED chair (Figure 2), became aware that the number of papers on chemical education was mushrooming but there were far too few places where the papers could be published. Education articles were not welcomed in ACS research journals, while School Science and Mathematics and Science were only willing to take a few articles as long as they led to an

Figure 1. The first issue of the just-acquired and redesigned ACS journal, Chemistry. Reprinted with permission from Chemistry, January 1964, 37 (1). Copyright 1964 American Chemical Society.

increase in the magazines’ circulation. Gordon therefore decided to found a chemical education journal. The secretary of the ACS, Charles L. Parsons, informed Gordon that ACS could give no financial support, but Parsons did give Gordon his reluctant blessing, betting him a lavish dinner that he would not be able to find 300 subscribers. During a twoday trip Gordon managed to collect $2000 worth of advertising using only a dummy journal and his personal enthusiasm. He then asked Edgar Fahs Smith, a leading chemical educator and three-time ACS president, to become the editor but Smith told Gordon he could do it himself. By the fall of the first year the Journal (Figure 3) had 1300 subscribers. Seven years later it had over 9000 subscribers. Parsons had lost his bet and Gordon enjoyed his dinner (2, 3). Early in the DIVCHED’s first year, a stranger giving his name as Koehn visited Gordon and asked him numerous questions about the Journal. Gordon recalled that he didn’t think his visitor was quite “all there”. Gordon forgot about the visit, but at the September 1924 ACS Meeting in Ithaca, NY, a message signed by Francis P. Garvan (Figure 4) arrived for him, “Have an important matter to take up with you.” Gordon took the night train to New York where the same Mr. Koehn met him and took him to Garvan. Garvan wanted to make the Journal much bigger in size, wanted Gordon to drop his faculty appointment and move to New York, and wanted to send Gordon around the United States for a year to organize regional chemical education groups. Gordon re-

Figure 2. Neil Gordon, first editor of the Journal of Chemical Education.

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Figure 3. The first issue of the Journal of Chemical Education.

Figure 4. Francis Patrick Garvan, the U.S. Alien Property Custodian. Courtesy Chemical Heritage Foundation.

Figure 5. Francis Garvan, president of the Chemical Foundation, as “David” defending American chemical industry against the “Goliath” of German competition. From US Chemical Warfare Association Bulletin 1925, 21 (1 July); reprinted in Rhees, ref 4a.

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fused to move from Maryland but his salary from that time was paid by Garvan and by the Chemical Foundation that he headed so that Gordon could devote all the time he needed to promote and serve chemical education. Gordon was even able to take his family on an all-expense-paid trip to eight European countries to broaden the sources of articles for the Journal. The Chemical Foundation took over the business management of the Journal. Garvan had inherited a successful paper company that provided him an ample salary. Trained in law, he was appointed by President Woodrow Wilson in 1917 to manage the New York office of the Alien Property Custodian (5), which had been set up when the United States joined the war against Germany, to deal with German properties in the United States and to hold German patents and trademarks. It was here that Garvan discovered the pivotal importance of chemicals in the life of the nation, the widespread U.S. dependence on German chemical suppliers for dyes, medicinals, and photographic chemicals, and the German competitive practices that had often thwarted American attempts at chemical ventures. By 1919 Garvan was the Alien Property Custodian. The Garvans’ five-year-old daughter, Patricia, had died the previous year of a streptococcal infection. This may have been another factor leading her parents to invest time and money in support of chemical and medical education and research. Garvan was determined to end the German domination of dyes and medicinals. He created the nonprofit Chemical Foundation on behalf of the American Dyes Institute, the Manufacturing Chemists’ Association, and others. For $250,000, the Foundation then purchased from the U.S. government over 6000 patents, trademarks, and copyrights that the government had seized (5a). Subsequently, these were licensed to American individuals and manufacturers, the proceeds going mainly into a crash program in public chemical education. In 1922 President Warren Harding ordered the patents returned to their original German owners. The Chemical Foundation refused and Garvan successfully defended the refusal in the Federal Court (5e). The same year the ACS and the Chemical Foundation together lobbied Congress for protection of American industry, culminating in the 1922 Fordney–McCumber Tariff Act, which placed high duties on German dyes and medicinals (Figure 5; ref 6 ). Garvan’s Foundation and the ACS cooperated again in 1925 to defeat the Senate’s ratification of the Geneva Protocol, which was to have banned gas warfare (7). They also worked together to establish the National Institutes of Health. In its massive public education activities the DIVCHED, in its alliance with Garvan, clearly was a participant in the blocking of the Geneva Convention and the passage of the 1922 Tarriff Act. In addition the Garvans seemed to have an uncanny awareness of what the chemical profession needed. They must have sensed that women chemists were not adequately encouraged and recognized, as evidenced by their endowment of the ACS Garvan Medal. Since 1937 this medal has recognized “distinguished service to chemistry by women chemists” (1f, 5a, 4a,b). Garvan knew that only the American public could assure the continuing viability of the American chemical industry. He therefore sought to make the Journal of Chemical Education into a popular national chemistry magazine rather

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than a peer-reviewed publication. However, Garvan’s attempted domination almost led to a break with the ACS in 1927. His support was too important for the ACS to break with him completely, so a more formal financial and policy arrangement was worked out between Garvan and the ACS. A second publication also interested Garvan, The Chemistry Leaflet for high school-level and introductory college-level chemistry students. Garvan convinced the DIVCHED to take the publication over in 1929, agreeing to finance it and run its business affairs. Another project was financed by the Chemical Foundation and also administered by DIVCHED: an essay contest for high school-level and introductory college-level chemistry students to emphasize the relation of chemistry to industry, medicine, agriculture, the home, and national defense. Winners were awarded scholarships and cash prizes. A prestigious national committee gave stature to the project, chaired by then Secretary of Commerce and future president, Herbert Hoover (List 1; ref 8). During the first year 15,000 colored posters, 110,000 booklets, and 200,000 form letters publicized the essay contest. Little did the DIVCHED realize that its members would have to read over five million essays during an eight-year period. The Garvans and the Chemical Foundation contributed $500,000 to the essay contest, partly as a memorial to their daughter. The money was in addition to $214,000 contributed to the Journal of Chemical Education and $53,000 supporting The Chemistry Leaflet (9). The Chemical Heritage Foundation’s (CHF) archives contain several letters from Garvan’s finance colleague, William W. Buffum, who was always there to help when the DIVCHED’s projects were confronted with a deficit or impending financial disaster. Buffum, among all his other duties, was made business manager of the Journal in 1927. In 1929 Garvan, the only nonchemist ever so honored, received the ACS’s highest award, the Priestley Medal.

Chemistry’ as the Journal of Chemical Education was billed” (4b, 1f ). When the DIVCHED returned The Chemistry Leaflet, Pauline B. Mack (Figure 6), its editor, changed the title of the publication briefly to the Science Leaflet, hoping for a larger readership. In 1944 Mack relinquished the editorship because she had become director of the Ellen H. Richards Institute at Pennsylvania State College (now Pennsylvania State University), directing a staff of more than sixty people who were conducting mass studies in human nutrition (11).5 Science Service, an organization dedicated to the popularization of science, continued the magazine under the title Chemistry (Figure 7) and Helen Miles Davis and her husband, Watson Davis, served as the editors.6 After 18 years, in 1962, Science Service decided to sell the magazine. The ACS bought it mainly for its name since it did not like the idea of another organization publishing a

List 1. National Committee for Prize Essay Contest Herbert Hoover, Secretary of Commerce, future U.S. president George Eastman, Eastman Kodak Charles Mayo, the Mayo Foundation Edgar Fahs Smith Robert Andrew Millikan, 1923 physics Nobel laureate Jane Addams James W. Wadsworth, chair, U.S. Senate Committee on Military Affairs The vice-president of AT&T The presidents of Yale University and Vassar College

Depression Years That same year, 1929, saw the Wall Street crash. During the years of the ensuing depression, the Chemical Foundation’s patents were expiring, so in 1932 the Foundation’s financial support for the DIVCHED’s chemical education ventures collapsed. The effect on the two publications was traumatic. Neil Gordon was asked whether he wanted to continue as editor of the Journal accepting all financial responsibility (10a). Gordon did not see how he could accept the responsibility and resigned (2).4 Otto Reinmuth of the University of Maryland courageously took over the editorship of the Journal. The DIVCHED’s treasurer, Virginia Bartow of the University of Illinois, found her bank account frozen after the crash and wondered how she should operate and whether she could make it to the Spring 1932 New Orleans ACS Meeting (10b). The Chemistry Leaflet was returned by the DIVCHED to its editor at Penn State. The effects were summarized by Rhees, “In the absence of Chemical Foundation support, the Journal gradually deemphasized secondary education, dispensed with most of the material on educational research and technique, which had dominated the 1920s, and became a digest of current research for chemists. Garvan’s ‘national chemical magazine’ became instead a ‘Living Textbook of

Figure 6. Pauline Beery Mack, editor of The Chemistry Leaflet, received the ACS Garvan Medal in 1950. Reproduced with permission from Chem. Eng. News 1950, 28 (18). Copyright 1950 American Chemical Society.


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List 2. Reading List for the Women’s Club Study Course in American Chemistry Titles from the Chemical Foundation Chemistry in Industry; Harrison E. Howe, Ed.; Vol. 1 and 2; 1924 and 1925. Chemistry in Agriculture; Joseph S. Chamberlain, Ed.; 1926. Chemistry in Medicine; Julius Stieglitz, Ed.; 1928. Other Books Chemistry and the Home; by Harrison E. Howe and F. M. Turner, Jr.; Scribner’s: New York, 1927. American Chemistry, 2nd ed.; by Harrison Hale; Van Nostrand: New York, 1928. The Romance of Chemistry; by William Foster; The Century Co.: New York, 1927. Creative Chemistry; by Edwin E. Slosson; The Century Co.: New York, 1919. (see Figure 8) Figure 7. The Chemistry Leaflet was continued in 1944 by Science Service under the new title Chemistry. Courtesy Science Service.

magazine called Chemistry. The ACS then began exploring what to do with its new acquisition. The Soviet launching of Sputnik on October 4, 1957, had a traumatic effect on the United States and galvanized the country and its scientific community once again to improve science education. Two national chemistry curricula were developed, CBA (Chemical Bond Approach) and ChemStudy (Chemical Education Materials Study), both far more demanding than the average high school-level curriculum. Chemistry was to provide intellectually demanding and stimulating material for the top forty percent of students beginning their chemistry studies in high school or college and for their teachers. I was the first and only editor of Chemistry in its new guise, working under the inspiring guidance of the ACS Director of Publications Richard L. Kenyon. This new ACS magazine was crafted by the designer Joseph Jacobs (husband of Madeleine Jacobs, editor of Chemical and Engineering News) with the help of managing editor Eugenia Keller, a brilliant stylist. Chemistry’s readership rose from 6500 subscribers to over 30,000 subscribers. However in 1978, after Kenyon’s untimely death, the magazine was terminated as too expensive and as somewhat elitist. The name was briefly changed to SciQuest but then the task of speaking to the high school community was taken over by the ACS Education Office. This office created the totally new publication ChemMatters. The major concern for the secondary education community was then shouldered for many years not by DIVCHED but by ACS national headquarters (12). High School Teacher Involvement In the DIVCHED’s early years, high school teachers were extremely active in divisional affairs as seen for instance by the huge involvement in the essay contest. High school teachers presented numerous papers at early DIVCHED meetings. When Gordon organized the editorial support for the Jour654

List 3. Women’s Clubs Study Course 1. Chemistry—The Ball-bearings of Progress 2. Water, Sanitation, and Medicine 3. Feeding the Family 4. Clothing the Family 5. Painting the Picture of Progress 6. Fuel for Fire and for Force 7. Dinner Plates and Drain Pipes 8. Rubber 9. Electrochemistry and the Kitchen 10. American Chemists and the Future 11. Gold, King of Metals, and Iron, the President 12. In Peace and in War

nal, he appointed Wilhelm Segerblom, a chemistry teacher at Phillips Exeter Academy and secretary and second-in-command of the DIVCHED, to be in charge of high school papers, while two other editors were responsible for graduate education and industry. Howell recently pointed out that “during the first eight years of [the DIVCHED’s] existence, the proportion of articles authored by high school teachers, averaging 14%, was much greater than in subsequent years. By 1933, the proportion had dropped to about 6%; in 1948, it was less than 3%; and in 1973, it was about 1%. During the 1980s and 1990s the proportion began to increase slowly, exceeding 3% in 1997…” (13). In recent years, however, the DIVCHED and the Journal have assumed once more major responsibilities for the high school community.



List 4. Some Questions from the Women’s Clubs Study Course What has caused the lessening of the frequency of epidemics, such as yellow fever and typhoid? What is an important by-product in the manufacture of soap? Why do we eat? Is the diet of today more wholesome than that of fifty years ago? Imagine life without textiles. Why is summer clothing made of linen and winter clothing made of wool? Should an American dye industry be maintained? Note its constant value in the war against insects and disease, as well as in ordinary warfare. “Future sources of energy” or “untapped sources of energy”—wind, waves, earth’s heat, atmospherical electricity, sun’s rays, etc. Should there be rubber plantations in the Philippines? If so, why? Have explosives been a blessing or a curse to man? Use of warfare gases; forbidden at the Hague; prohibition ratified by Germany and Great Britain, but not by United States. Why? [References to reading list given.] Compare America’s resources and power with those of other nations. Should these facts cause a feeling of boastfulness or of deep responsibility?

Women Members of the DIVCHED One of the strangest aspects of those early years was the significant role and scant recognition of the DIVCHED’s women members. During the first decade only two women were elected to national office and both had the office of treasurer; Rosalie Parr from 1928 to 1932 and Virginia Bartow from 1932 to 1941. No other woman held a nationally elected DIVCHED office until 1971 when Anna Harrison was elected to chair the DIVCHED (14). To find out what kind of publication interested chemical educators, Neil Gordon had written to 750 men and women educators. Yet a national committee on the correlation of high school and college chemistry, which was established just before the Section of Chemical Education became DIVCHED, “was to be composed of three high-school men, three college men, and three industrial men”, as if women did not exist (15; italics added). However it should not be assumed that women were not active in DIVCHED’s first decade. On the contrary, the second meeting of the DIVCHED, spring 1925, in Washington DC, heard a report of the standing committee on

Figure 8. Edwin E. Slosson’s 1919 bestseller, Creative Chemistry, was one of the books used in the Women’s Clubs Study Course in American Chemistry.

Promotion of Chemical Education in Women’s Clubs. That year the Journal of Chemical Education published the Women’s Clubs Study Course in American Chemistry (16). Its preamble states that the study course was made possible through the generosity of Francis Garvan and was prepared by a committee of the DIVCHED in cooperation with the Bureau of Women’s Clubs headquartered at the University of Arkansas. The course was arranged around a set of reference books furnished by the publishers and the Chemical Foundation “at a price which does not consider profit, but only with the hope that the women of the United States may come to see the fundamental importance of chemistry in the life of America today” (ref 16; List 2). Each section of the twelvesection course (List 3) was provided with reading assignments and questions (List 4). Garvan’s original concerns are again visible. The DIVCHED today has successfully overcome its male chauvinism, but the same can by no means be said about the chemical teaching profession as a whole. In 1983–1984 as a member of the ACS commission on the future of chemical education I looked at the number of women in tenure-track positions in the nation’s colleges and universities. Of the 191 Ph.D.-granting institutions listed in the 1981 ACS Directory of Graduate Research, 85 had no women in tenure-track positions, 76 had one woman, and only 30 had two or more women. In a ten-year period from 1970–1971 to 1980–1981, the number of women in tenure-track positions had risen from 1.5% to 3.7%. The present status of women was recently described by Madeleine Jacobs (17a). A betterment of that troubling situation has been extremely slow (17b, c, d).


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It appears that leading chemists of major universities slowly distanced themselves from the DIVCHED (18). DIVCHED has either been unable to influence the hiring practices in American institutions of higher learning or chose to focus its attention elsewhere. Perhaps it might be worth creating a task force to see where the DIVCHED might help. Summary As I delved further into the DIVCHED’s activities in its early years I was ever more astounded by the extraordinary amount of energy and creativity and the large numbers of chemists involved. The above by no means exhausts what was being done. During Gordon’s year of touring and organizing the nation’s educators, he had each region choose leaders—one high school teacher, one college or university teacher, and one person from industry—and these were organized as a representative Senate of Chemical Education. That Senate structure was used for the essay contests and as an advisory group both to the Journal and the DIVCHED. It was terminated in 1935 (1d). The 1930s were characterized by depression, economically and in the DIVCHED. The 1940s were focused on war. It was Sputnik in 1957 that galvanized the nation into embarking on a massive science education program. Money again flowed freely, the Garvans and the Chemical Foundation being replaced by that new source of massive funding, the National Science Foundation. The Chemical Bond Approach and the ChemStudy curricula were funded, as well as the Council on College Chemistry, a national advisory body that among many other contributions produced supplementary booklets for college courses to highlight the glamour and relevance of chemical discoveries. It was in this period that Chemistry was launched in its new guise by the American Chemical Society, high school chemistry again made its presence felt in DIVCHED’s flagship Journal, and we saw emerging the activities of the two-year college chemistry teachers. Notes 1. Paper presented as part of a symposium celebrating 75 years of the ACS Division of Chemical Education; New Orleans, August, 1999. 2. The author wishes to thank the Chemical Heritage Foundation (CHF), Mary Virginia Orna, and the staff of CHF’s Othmer Library for assistance in the preparation of this article. 3. Since the appearance of the last surveys of DIVCHED’s history (1), new sources have become available. A manuscript biography of Neil Gordon, the second chair of DIVCHED and the first editor of the Journal, written by his daughter Fortuna (2) is in the archive collection of the CHF. Rhees has studied the efforts by chemists during and after the First World War to educate the American public about the central importance of chemistry and the chemical industry. His studies provided a broad social context for this “Chemists’ Crusade” in which wittingly or unwittingly DIVCHED played a major role (4). I am indebted for personal information about Pauline Beery Mack and the Chemistry Leaflet to Dorothy Lesch of Greensboro who had been Mack’s last assistant putting together The Chemistry Leaflet before it was sold to Science Service and to Helen Parker of Greensboro, Mack’s former student. Finally DIVCHED’s archives at the CHF include many of DIVCHED’s early papers.

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4. The Journal was by no means the last of Gordon’s contributions to chemistry. He initiated, planned, and for many years ran what have become known as the Gordon Research Conferences. He moved from the University of Maryland to Johns Hopkins University and in 1936 was asked to head the chemistry department of Central College (now Central Methodist College) in Fayette, Missouri. He managed to secure the library left by the New York sugar chemist Samuel Hooker together with Hooker’s laboratory for the college. Six years later Gordon moved to Wayne State University and, through gifts from the Kresge Foundation, took the library with him where it is now the renowned Kresge-Hooker Scientific Library of the Wayne State University System. After two years of ill health Gordon ended his life in 1949 at the age of 62 (2). 5. Pauline Beery Mack was a pioneer in nutrition research, an early investigator of calcium-loss on aging, and in later years a consultant to NASA. In 1970 she received NASA’s Silver Snoopy Award for her studies on calcium-loss from bones during long space missions. After thirty years at Pennsylvania State College, Mack moved to Texas State College for Women (now Texas Woman’s University) where her research files for the national bone-density measurements were rediscovered and students are now examining them (11). 6. Helen Davis was one of the first women on the scientific staff of the National Bureau of Standards and a science writer for Science Service. In that capacity she was present at one of the nuclear bomb tests. Watson Davis, who also once worked for the Bureau of Standards, had been science editor for the Washington Herald (now The Washington Post) and covered the Scopes evolution trial and most other major science news stories during his fortyyear journalistic career. In 1933 he became director of Science Service, which publicized science and scientific developments, produced science kits for home experiments, and coordinated the thousands of Science Clubs of America as well as the Westinghouse Science Talent Search. The History of Science Society annually awards a Watson Davis and Helen Miles Davis prize to the author of a book useful in undergraduate teaching or which promotes greater public understanding of the history of science.

Literature Cited 1. A number of articles cover aspects of the activities of the Division of Chemical Education during its first decade. See especially: (a) Bohning, James J. J. Chem. Educ. 2003, 80, 642– 650; (b) Kessel, William G. J. Chem. Educ. 1973, 50, 803– 807; (c) Gordon, Neil E. J. Chem. Educ. 1943, 20, 369–372, 405; (d) Swan, John N. J. Chem. Educ. 1932, 9, 670–676; (e) Segerblom, Wilhelm. Ind. Eng. Chem., News Edn. 1939, 17, 309–311; (f ) Orna, Mary V. Chem. Heritage, 1988, 16 (2), 14. 2. Gordon, F. L. The Price of Decision. Neil Elbridge Gordon 1886– 1949; Department of Classical and Modern Languages, University of Louisville: Louisville, KY, 1985. 3. (a) Kessel, William G. J. Chem. Educ. 1973, 50, 805–806; (b) Hays, D. R. Neil Elbridge Gordon, 1886–1949. In American Chemists and Chemical Engineers; Miles, W. D., Ed.; American Chemical Society: Washington DC, 1974; pp 181–182. 4. (a) Rhees, David J. Bull. Hist. Chem. 1992–1993, 13–14, 40– 47; (b) Rhees, David J. “Crusading in the Classroom: The American Chemical Society, The Chemical Foundation, and Secondary Chemistry Education, 1920–1940”; paper read



5.

6. 7.

8.

9.

before the History of Science Society meeting, Cincinnati, OH, December 30, 1988. (a) Gould, R. F. Francis Patrick Garvan, 1875–1937. In American Chemists and Chemical Engineers; Miles, W. D.; Gould, R. F., Eds.; Gould Books: Guilford, CT, 1994; Vol. 2, pp 110– 112; (b) Reed, G. M. Crusading for Chemistry: The Professional Career of Charles Holmes Herty; University of Georgia Press: Athens, GA, 1995; Chapter 8; (c) Thackray, A.; Sturchio, J. L.; Carroll, P. T.; Bud, R. Chemistry in America 1876–1976; Reidel: Boston, 1995; pp 101, 535; (d) Tempest R. Chem. Heritage, 1988, 16 (2), 15; (e) Steen, Kathryn. Isis 2001 92, 91–122. Rhees, David J. Bull. Hist. Chem. 1992–1993, 13–14, 42. Rhees, David J. “Crusading in the Classroom: The American Chemical Society, The Chemical Foundation, and Secondary Chemistry Education, 1920–1940”; paper read before the History of Science Society meeting, Cincinnati, OH, December 30, 1988; p.5. Gordon, F. L. The Price of Decision. Neil Elbridge Gordon 1886– 1949; Department of Classical and Modern Languages, University of Louisville: Louisville, KY, 1985; p 98. Rhees, David J. “Crusading in the Classroom: The American Chemical Society, The Chemical Foundation, and Secondary Chemistry Education, 1920–1940”; paper read before the History of Science Society meeting, Cincinnati, OH, December 30, 1988; pp 7–9.

10. (a) Chemical Heritage Foundation: archives of the ACS Division of Chemical Education, Box 10; (b) Correspondence between Virginia Bartow and R. A. Baker, Secretary of the DIVCHED, November 4, 1931, January 22, 1932, January 25, 1932, January 26, 1932, March 22, 1932; Correspondence from William Buffum to Virginia Bartow October 27, 1931, archives Box 10. 11. (a) Roscher, N. M.; Nguyen, C. K. Pauline Gracia Beery Mack. In Women in Chemistry and Physics: A Bibliographic Sourcebook, Grinstein, L. S., Rose R. K., Rafailovich M. H., Eds., Greenwood Press: Westport, CT, 1993; pp 337–345; (b) Roscher N., personal communication, 1998. 12. Benfey, T. Chemistry 1964, 37 (1), 2. 13. Howell, J. Emory. J. Chem. Educ. 1998, 75, 1546–1547. 14. Kessel, William G. J. Chem. Educ. 1973, 50, 806. 15. Gordon, Neil E. J. Chem. Educ. 1943, 20, 369. 16. J. Chem. Educ. 1930, 7, 325–340. 17. (a) Jacobs, Madeleine. Chem. Eng. News 1998, 76 (38), 43– 55; (b) Jacobs, Madeleine. Chem. Eng. News 2000, 78 (39), 5; (c) Long, Janice R. Chem. Eng. News 2000, 78 (39), 56–57; (d) Busch, Daryle H. Chem. Eng. News 2000, 78 (39), 58, 79. 18. Rhees, David J. “Crusading in the Classroom: The American Chemical Society, The Chemical Foundation, and Secondary Chemistry Education, 1920–1940”; paper read before the History of Science Society meeting, Cincinnati, OH, December 30, 1988; p. 2.


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