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Chapter 8
Visualizations in High School Chemistry Textbooks Used in Turkey Sevil Akaygun* Department of Mathematics and Science Education, Bogazici University, 34342, Istanbul, Turkey *E-mail:
[email protected].
Textbooks have been the main materials used in chemistry classes because many teachers rely on textbooks in most of their instruction. As the students are heavily exposed to the content and the visual representations in the textooks, it is important to take a closer look at what the visualizations included in the textbooks reveal. This study aimed to investigate the visual representations used in 9th grade chemisty textbooks used in Turkey. A total of nine chemistry textbooks used in high schools in Turkey were analyzed for this study. Four of the textbooks were written by Turkish authors in Turkish, one of them was written by Turkish authors in English, and four of them were written by foreign authors in English. The visualizations in all nine textbooks were compared in terms of the quantity and the percentage distribution of each type of representation (macroscopic, symbolic, particulate, multiple, hybrid, mixed, integrated or combined), and the attributes of the particulate visualizations (structure or process). The results of the analysis revealed that the percentage of macroscopic visualizations was the most common type of representation in eight out of nine textbooks. Despite the fact that five of the textbooks included more visualizations depicting processes in the unit of Interactions Among the Chemical Species, particulate visualizations depicting structures were dominant in all the textbooks. Visualizations are important tools for learning chemistry; thus careful planning and inclusion can be suggested.
© 2018 American Chemical Society Cox and Schatzberg; International Perspectives on Chemistry Education Research and Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.
Introduction We live in a visual world where all of us are exposed to lots of visualizations in daily life on a website we visit, on the window of a train we take, on a magazine we read. We try to make sense of what all these visualizations represent because they usually simplify or schematize information. The word visualization refers to the systematic and focused visual display of information in the form of tables, diagrams, models and graphs (1). Visualizations, or external visualizations, as described by Gobert (2005) are the representations typically used for learning (2). Frederiksen & Breuleux (1988) argue that the ones used in science are semantically-rich because of being specific for a particular domain, and thus involve their own symbol systems (3). Yet, the comprehension of semantically-rich visualizations seem to be more complex than the iconic representations (2), might be due to their features such as color, spatial orientation, or the content. In chemistry, visualizations have become important because they convey information about the visible and invisible chemical phenomena. They usually represent structures, behaviors, or processes involved in chemical phenomena. In learning chemistry, students are exposed to visualizations in the form of macroscopic, symbolic, and particulate levels of representations (4, 5). Macroscopic representations are the ones that represent the observable and tangible depictions, such as photographs; symbolic ones include the symbols, equations, mathematical representations, such as structural formula of benzene; and particulate ones are the ones depicting atoms, molecules or ions, such as drawings showing particles. Visualizations representing particulate level also include attributes such as a structure, (e.g. an atomic model), or a process (e.g. formation of ionic bonding) (6). During the process of understanding, students are mentally engaged with the chemical phenomena through the use of different type of visual representations (5), and navigate between them (7). In other words, students try to make sense out of these visualizations, therefore, they should be carefully selected and introduced to students. Textbooks have been important both for students and teachers. They have been accepted as the main resource of science instruction (8–10). Many teachers plan their classes according to the content of the textbooks (11). Many students read their textbooks to learn the content (9). Considering the nature of chemistry (4), one of the main components of chemistry textbooks is the visualizations (10). It has been suggested that texbook visualizations help students understand the content well (12, 13) and avoid misconceptions (14). However, textbook visualizations also have potential to create confusion (15). Considering the role of visualizations in understanding chemistry, it is worth taking a closer look at the ones included in the textbooks. In many studies, visualizations included in chemistry textbooks were analysed with respect to various aspects (10, 12, 16, 17). Gkitzia et. al. developed five criteria for the analysis of chemical representations, and used them to evaluate five textbooks used in Greece. These criteria include type of the representation, interpretation of the surface features, their relationship to the text, the existence and the properties of a caption, and the degree of correlation between the components comprising 112 Cox and Schatzberg; International Perspectives on Chemistry Education Research and Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.
a multiple representation (12). The same evaluation criteria, completely or partially, were used to analyse the visualizations found in the 12 most preferred chemistry textbooks used in the USA (10), and the ones representing particulate nature of matter, found in 8 middle school science (16) and chemistry textbooks (17) used in Turkey. Due to the nature of chemistry, the criterion of types of the visual representations is especially relevant to the analysis of visualizations depicting chemical prhenomena. Therefore, it is important to identify whether the visualization represents macroscopic, symbolic or particulate levels. According to Johnstone (4), these three levels of representations should be interrelated so that the students can make connections amongs them and better conceptualize chemical phenomena. Thus, if these levels are presented together, the nature of chemical phenomena would be better described (12). Therefore, some of the chemistry visualizations include more than one level of representations to help students make better connections. Gkitzia et. al (2011) described these combinations as multiple, which depict a chemical phenomenon simultaneously at two or three levels; hybrid, which include characteristics of two or three levels of chemistry coexist complementing each other forming one representation; mixed where characteristics of a level (macro, particulate, symbolic) and characteristics of another type of depiction, such as analogy, coexist (12). Types of representations displayed by the visualizations in chemisty textbooks might affect students’ understandings; thus they have been taken under the lens of researchers in various countries. Regarding the analysis of five chemistry textbooks used in Greece, Gkitzia et. Al (12) reported that the majority of the visual representations included in textbooks were macroscopic (23.6%) and symbolic (23.6%), followed by multiple (21.8%), particulate (19.1%), hybrid (10.9%), and mixed (0.9%) representations. When the authors count the subordinated individual representations of the multiple as separate ones the number of all the separate representations becomes 122 and they found that the symbolic representations (36.9%) were almost equal to macroscopic ones (35.2%), while there are fewer submicroscopic representations (27.9%). In case of visual representations including multiple levels (21.8%); the majority of them (45.8%) included macroscopic and symbolic levels, and there was only one representation including all three levels (12). Considering the chemistry textbooks used in the USA, Nyachwaya and Wood (2014) reported the majority (85%) of the visual representations were at the symbolic level, whereas the rest of them (15%) were either at macroscopic, particulate or multiple levels (10). In Turkey, as in many other countries, students start learning chemical phenomena in the middle school. When Kapıcı and Savaçşı-Açıkalın (2015) analyzed the 8 middle school science textbooks in terms of the visualizations representing particulate nature of matter, they found that the most common (36%) type of representation was the macroscopic representation, followed by the particulate (23%), multiple (23%), and symbolic representations (11%) (16). In a recent study, Demirdogen (2017), analyzed 4 high schools chemistry textbooks used from grades 9 through 12, and found that11th grade chemistry textbook included the highest number (30%) of visual representations, whereas 9th grade had the lowest number of (20%) them. Even though the type of representations 113 Cox and Schatzberg; International Perspectives on Chemistry Education Research and Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.
change from unit to unit, in general, the most common type of representation in Turkish high school chemistry textbooks was the macroscopic (34.4%), followed by symbolic (23.3%), hybrid (23.2%), multiple (10.4%), particulate (6.3%), mixed (1.2%), microscopic (0.3%) representations, and scientists (0.9%) (17). Even though visualizations have capacity to convey rich information about a content, students are exposed to similar types of representations, mostly macroscopic and symbolic, via chemistry textbooks. This study aimed to investigate the types of representations, and the attributes of the particulate representations given in 9th grade chemistry textbooks, used in different high schools in Turkey. In Turkey, high school chemistry curriculum is developed by the National Ministry of Education (MoNE) and implemented nationwide. The textbooks that are published in Turkey are prepared in accordance with the national high school chemistry curriculum. Then, they are sent to a committee in MoNE to get approval. After getting approval, MoNE distributes the textbooks to public schools. In some public schools, chemistry teachers ask students purchase another textbook as a supplementary resource. In private schools, teachers select the textbook that best fits to the needs of their students and the curriculum. If the language of instruction is English, they select the textbooks in English, either published in Turkey or abroad. Chemistry teachers in private high schools may also select a supplementary textbook to follow in class supporting instruction. Therefore, it can be said that, while learning chemistry, students all over Turkey are exposed to visualizations conveyed by various textbooks; specifically, the ones sent by MoNE, the ones used as supplementary, the ones written in Turkish or English, the ones written by Turkish or foreign authors. In other words, it would be important to identify the similarities and differences among the visualizations in all these types of textbooks because they convey information needed for understanding chemistry. In the previous studies, visualizations included in science (16) and chemistry (17) textbooks used across the grade level in Turkey were analyzed. In both of these studies (16, 17), all the textbooks were written in Turkey by Turkish authors. Hence, these textbooks might have reached to the students who study chemistry in Turkish. This study is significant in terms of evaluating the visualizations included in various chemistry textbooks that were published in Turkey and abroad, written by Turkish and international authors. Therefore these textbooks might have reached to more students, including the ones who study chemistry in English, all over Turkey. In addition, the visualizations at the particulate level were also analysed with respect to a novel criterion, having the attribute of depicting a structure or a process. Therefore, the specific research questions of the study are; 1. 2.
What types of visualizations are included in different 9th grade chemistry textbooks used in Turkey? What type of attribute; structure or process, are depicted by the particulate level visualizations included in various 9th grade chemistry textbooks used in Turkey?
114 Cox and Schatzberg; International Perspectives on Chemistry Education Research and Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.
Method This study is a generic qualitative research (18) in nature with a specific genre of descriptive qualitative research (19) where the researcher makes meaning by qualitatively analyzing the data to describe a phenomenon. In this study, visualizations included in the chemistry textbooks were analyzed through content analysis (20), and then interpreted to answer the research questions. Even though the visual representations in the textbooks were counted, the researcher analyzed each representation and coded them with respect to a set of criteria.
Sample A total of nine chemistry textbooks used in high schools in Turkey were analyzed for this study. Four of the textbooks were written by Turkish authors in Turkish, one of them was written by Turkish authors in English, and four of them were written by foreign authors in English. One of the texbooks in Turkish and all the textbooks in English were used as the main textbook; whereas the three of the other textbooks in Turkish were used as supplementary resource. These textbooks were determined by asking to 20 chemistry teachers working at public and private schools. Half of the teachers said they were using more than one textbook. For instance, one teacher in a public school indicated that they had been following the textbook approved by MoNE and another textbook in Turkish as a supplement. Another teacher who works at a private school said they had been using a textbook written in English as their main resource and the one approved by MoNE as a supplement. Half of the teachers (10 out of 20) said they were using MT1, 3 of them said they preferred S1, 2 of them said they were using S2, and another 2 teachers said they were referring to S3. Considering the teachers who teach in English, 4 of them said they preferred MET1, 2 of the teachers said ME1 was their main textbook, another 2 of the teachers said it was ME2 for them. In case of ME3 and ME4, one teacher for each one said they selected these books as their main chemistry textbooks. Ultimately, the most preferred textbooks (except ME3 and ME4) were included in the analysis. Even though ME3 and ME4 were preferred only one out of 20 teachers, they were still analyzed for keeping the number of chemistry textbooks written by Turkish and foreign authors equivalent. Table 1 shows the descriptions of textbooks analyzed in this study.
115 Cox and Schatzberg; International Perspectives on Chemistry Education Research and Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.
Table 1. Descriptions of 9th grade chemistry textbooks used in the study Label of the book
Authors
Language
MT1 – Main/Supplementary (21)
Turkish
Turkish
S1 – Supplementary (22)
Turkish
Turkish
S2 – Supplementary (23)
Turkish
Turkish
S3 – Supplementary (24)
Turkish
Turkish
MET1 – Main (25)
Turkish
English
ME1 – Main (26)
English
English
ME2 – Main (27)
English
English
ME3 – Main (28)
English
English
ME4 – Main (29)
English
English
Data Collection and Analysis The visualizations in the main content introduction of the textooks were coded by the author of this chapter with respect to the criterion of type of representations (macroscopic, symbolic, particulate, multiple, hybrid, and mixed) developed by Gkitzia et. al (2011) (12) and to the criterion about the attributes of particulate representations as having structure or process features (6). The visualizations in the assessment or homework sections of the textbooks were excluded in the analysis. The analysis of the visualizations in Turkish chemistry textbook revealed two new codes: integrated and combined representations. Integrated reprsentations include more than one visualization of the same type, integrated in the same content. For instance, a drawing of an alchemist/scientist from earlier times integrated with some regular laboratory glassware including colorful solutions (Figure 1 (a)) is an example for an integrated representation. Combined representations include more than one type of representation displayed independently from each other. An example for combined representation is the one which includes macroscopic, symbolics, particulate, and hybrid representations shown as chalk drawings on a blackboard showing different aspects of chemistry (Figure 1 (b)). Coding was completed by one researcher and then 50 randomly selected visualizations were coded by a second researcher for inter-rater reliability (30). Through discussions, agreement was obtained in all the codes. The textbooks written by Turkish authors (MT1, S1, S2, S3, MET1) followed national chemistry curriculum for the 9th grade objectives, whereas the textbooks written by foreign authors included most of the content covered in the 9th grade, not in the same order. The deviations were observed for the first and the last unit. One of the textbooks (ME4) which was written by the foreign authors was compiled by the publisher so that it only included the content covered in 9th grade chemistry curriculum in Turkey. So, this textbook, ME4, was specifically prepared for this particular school by including some of the content published in the original book. 116 Cox and Schatzberg; International Perspectives on Chemistry Education Research and Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.
However, this textbook was prepared in 2016, one year before the curriculum was updated. So, it didn’t include the visualizations in Unit 5. Table 2 shows the units covered in the 9th grade chemistry curriculum (31) in Turkey.
Figure 1. Example for (a) an integrated and (b) a combined representation. (a) Adapted from “Faust dans son laboratoire (Faust in his laboratory)” by Frédéric Boissonnas, 1896. In Dover Edition of Creative Photography: Aesthetic Trends 1839-1960: Helmut Gernsheim: Bonanza Books: 1962: p. 131. (b) Image courtesy of Martina Vaculikova, Copyright 123RF.com. (see color insert)
Table 2. Units covered in the 9th grade chemistry in Turkey Unit
Content
1
Chemistry as a Science
2
Atom and Periodic Table
3
Interactions Among the Chemical Species
4
States of Matter
5
Environment and Chemistry
Unit 1, Chemistry as a Science, starts with the discussion about the differences between alchemy and chemistry, and history of chemistry as becoming a science. Then, it introduces the branches of chemistry and professions related with chemistry. Later, it introduces the symbolic language of chemistry by the symbols of elements and some basic compounds such as H2O, HCl, NaCl etc. Finally, it discusses the occupational health and safety in chemistry in terms of lab safety, and introduces the laboratory equipments. 117 Cox and Schatzberg; International Perspectives on Chemistry Education Research and Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.
Unit 2, Atom and Periodic Table, discusses atomic models with a historical lens, and the structure of atom focusing on the subatomic particles. Then it introduces Periodic Table in terms of distribution of elements on the periodic table, classification of elements according to their places on the periodic table, periodic trends including metallic properties, atomic size, electronegativity, ionization energy, electron affinity. Unit 3, Interactions Among the Chemical Species, introduces the classification of interactions as strong and weak. Then, it discusses the formation and characteristics of ionic, covalent, and metallic bonds as strong, and hydrogen bonding and Wan der Waals forces as weak interactions in detail. Finally it focuses on distinguishing between physical and chemical change in terms of the interactions among the species. Unit 4, Phases of Matter, focuses on the phases of matter; characteristics of solids including the forces keeping the particles together; characteristics of liquids including viscosity, differentiating evaporation and boiling, effect of pressure and humidity on evaporation; characteristics of gases including identification of pressure, temperature, volume and the amount for gases; and the definition of plasma. Unit 5, Environment and Chemistry, starts by introducing the importance of water for life, conservation of water, and hardness of water. Then it focuses on the pollution of soil, water and air, and discusses the solutions for environmental pollution.
Results and Discussion The number of visualization in each textbook for each unit was calculated and tabulated. The total number of visualizations in the books written in accordance with Turkish 9th grade chemistry curriculum (MT1, S1, S2, S3, MET1) varied between 232 and 337, whereas the visualizations of international textbooks, which were selected in accordance with the objectives of Turkish 9th grade chemistry curriculum (ME1, ME2, ME3, ME4) varied between 67 and 145. Figure 2 given below displays the number of visualizations included in the textbooks selected for this study. Due to the variations in the total number of visualizations included in each textbook, the percentage of each type of visualization was calculated (Figure 3). Despite the differences in the characteristics of the textbooks, except ME4, the majority of the visualizations (44-66%) were at the macroscopic level. This might be because 9th grade is the first year students start to take chemistry. Thus it might have been preferred to include more visualizations that they can observe so they make more sense to them. In ME4, which was compiled by the publisher with respect to the teacher’s selection, had almost equal percentages in macroscopic (26%), particulate (25%) , and multiple (28%) representations. This might have been because of the selection preference of the teachers. Figure 4 shows some examples of the macroscopic visualizations included in the textbooks.
118 Cox and Schatzberg; International Perspectives on Chemistry Education Research and Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.
Figure 2. Distribution of the total number of visualizations.
Figure 3. Percentage distribution of each type of representations. (see color insert)
119 Cox and Schatzberg; International Perspectives on Chemistry Education Research and Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.
Figure 4. Macroscopic visualizations: (a) glassware, included in MT1, (b) gold metal, included in ME2. (a) Image courtesy of Dreamstime Stock Photos, (b) image courtesy of Aleksey Baskakov, Copyright 123RF.com. (see color insert) Particulate level visualizations were the second mostly (13%-25%) used visualizations in almost all the textbooks (except S1 and ME4). The reason for these type of visualizations must be because learning about the particules as important as to learn the macroscopic aspects of the chemical phenomena. Figure 5 shows two examples for particulate level visualizations included in the textbooks.
Figure 5. Particulate visualizations: (a) structure of an atom, included in MT1, (b) water molecule, a similar one included in ME2. (a) Image courtesy of Dreamstime Stock Photos, (b) image courtesy of Dreamstime Stock Photos. (see color insert) As symbolic level is one of the main levels for understanding chemistry, except one textbook (ME3), textbooks included symbolic representations at a large extend (2%-22%). Usually the symbols of elements and periodic table were introduced only by using symbolic representations. Figure 6 shows two examples for symbolic level representations included in the textbooks. 120 Cox and Schatzberg; International Perspectives on Chemistry Education Research and Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.
Figure 6. Symbolic representations: (a) isotope atoms, a similar one is included in MT1, (b) periodic table, a similar one is included in ME1. (see color insert)
In most of the textbooks, it was observed that instead of using these main levels of representations solely, they were used in combinations as described earlier. The most common type of these combinations was the multiple reprsentations at which different types of representations were used to explain the same phenomenon. Except one textbook (S3), these type of representations were included in all the textbooks at various frequency (0-8%). Regarding the 9th grade chemistry objectives, states of matter was found to be one of the phenomenon depicted by using multiple representations. Figure 7 shows an example for a multiple type of representation included in one of the textbooks.
Figure 7. Multiple representation, a similar one is included in ME1. Photograph courtesy of pexels.com. (see color insert) 121 Cox and Schatzberg; International Perspectives on Chemistry Education Research and Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.
Some of the representations included in the textbooks were hybrid, at which two or more type of representations were given in the form of one representation. The percentage of including hybrid representations in the textbooks varied from 4% to 15%. Some of the hybrid representations included symbolic and particulate (Figure 8 (a)), whereas some others did show macroscopic and particulate levels together (Figure 8 (b)).
Figure 8. Hybrid representation which includes (a) symbolic and particulate levels, a similar one is included in MET, (b) macroscopic and particulate levels, a similar one is included in ME1. (a) Image courtesy of Dreamstime Stock Photos. (see color insert) In the analysis, it was observed that fewer percentage (0-5%) of the visualizations were mixed representations at which one type of representation and another type of depiction coexisted. In most cases, analogies were combined with particulate representations. This must be because the authors might have wanted to depict an unobservable phenomenon with a familiar phenomenon to help students visualize the particulate level. Figure 9 shows two of the mixed representations included in two of the textbooks. In these mixed representations tug-of-wars were shown in which male figures, as judged by men’s hats hanged from the symbols of elements’, convey male gender preference even though this game is also played by girls.
Figure 9. Mixed representations included in MT1. Reproduced with permission from Shmoop University Inc. (see color insert) 122 Cox and Schatzberg; International Perspectives on Chemistry Education Research and Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.
Only few integrated (0-3.5%) and combined (0-0.5%) type of representations were found in few of the textbooks, especially in the ones written by Turkish authors. This might have been due to the preference of the authors. Depending on the nature of the topic in each unit, variations in the number of visualizations included in each textbook were observed. The textbooks written by Turkish authors (S1, S2, S3, and MET1) seemed to use more visualizations in Unit 1, whereas the ones written by foreign authors (ME1, ME2, ME3, ME4) included more visualizations in Unit 2 and Unit 3 (Figure 10). This might have happened due to the differences in the number of visualizations matching with the objectives. Because international edition of the textbooks might have included limited number of visualizations corresponding to the objectives in Unit 1 and Unit 5 of the 9th grade chemistry curriculum.
Figure 10. Percentage distribution of visualizations in each unit of the textbooks. (see color insert) When the particulate visualizations were analyzed with respect to the attributes presenting a structure (e.g. structure of diamond) or a process (e.g. the process of dissolving), it was observed that in all the textbooks (except one, S2), the visualizations representing structure dominated the ones showing process (Figure 11). It might be thought that this might have happened due to the nature of the concepts. In fact, the units included concepts at a well-balanced nature; to be more specific, Unit 2 (Atom and Periodic Table) is said to focus more on the structure, whereas Unit 3 (Interactions Among the Chemical Species) is more about describing the processes occurring, finally Unit 4 (Phases of Matter) focuses both on structure and process. Even though some of the textbooks (S2, S3, ME1, ME2, ME4) included more visualizations depicting processes in Unit 3; in general, the total percentage of the visualization depicting structures were higher. Then, it can be said that this might have been occurred due to the affordances 123 Cox and Schatzberg; International Perspectives on Chemistry Education Research and Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.
of textbooks and difficulty of showing motion and process on a static image. In other words, it is easier to show a structure as it can be an image of a species taken at any time, whereas process should be represented over time. Figure 12 includes visualizations depicting (a) structure, and (b) process, included in some of the texbooks.
Figure 11. Percentage distribution of structure and process features in the particulate visualizations included in the textbooks. (see color insert)
Figure 12. Particulate representation which depicts (a) a structure, included in MT1, (b) a process, a similar one is included in ME1. (a) Image courtesy of Dreamstime Stock Photos. (see color insert)
124 Cox and Schatzberg; International Perspectives on Chemistry Education Research and Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.
Conclusions Visualizations are important in learning chemistry as well as they are in every aspect of life. Students need to relate chemical phenomena observed in life to particulate and symbolic levels (4). Therefore, it is important for them to make the connection among these levels while learning chemistry. The best way of helping students to make the connection is making use of visualizations. Because the textbooks are the materials extensively used in classes by students (9) and teachers (11), this study aimed to explore the types of visualizations 9th grade students in Turkey are exposed to through 9 different textbooks used in chemistry classes. The analysis of types of visualizations included in the textbooks revealed that, except one, almost all (except one) the textbooks included macroscopic visualizations at the largest extend. This finding is parallel with the findings of the studies about the analysis of visualizations included in the middle school science (16), high school chemistry (17) textbooks used in Turkey, and the high school chemistry textbooks used in Greece (12). Despite the differences in the characteristics, language, author, settings, cultural values related with the textbooks, it was interesting that almost all (except one) the authors preferred to use macroscopic visualizations comparatively more than the other types. This might have been preferred due to the consideration of grade level. Because, in Turkey, 9th grade is the first year for students to start studying chemistry as a subject, so it is important for the authors to make it a more relevant subject via macroscopic visualizations. One of the textbooks which was compiled based on the teachers’ requests, was found to include multiple representations having the highest percentage, a little bit more than both particulate and macroscopic ones. This might be considered as an interesting example because in that school teachers selected the parts to be included in the textbook in accordance with the objectives of 9th grade chemistry curriculum. This tailor-made book may be considered as an intersting case, because it was found to include visualizations depicting one chemical phenomena with two or more types of representaitons. In other words, the connections among the types of representations seemed to be made more obvious with multiple representations in this textbook. Finally, the particulate level visualizations included in all the books were analyzed with respect to their attributes of presenting a structure or a process. Although some textbooks included more visualizations depicting processes given in the unit of Interactions Among the Chemical Species, the total percentage of the visualization depicting structures were higher, in general. It might have been due to the affordances of textbooks; in otherwords the difficulty of showing motion and process on a static image. That might have been the reason for depicting mostly the structure of atom (e.g. subatomic particles) instead of the processes (e.g. motion of electrons). The analyses of textbook visualizations can be used for the purpose of designing more effective visualizations. Papageorgiou, Amariotakis, and Spiliotopoulou (2017) analyzed visual representations found in nine Greek secondary school chemistry textbooks, with the purpose to construct a systemic network. As a result of their analysis, the authors suggested that such a systemic 125 Cox and Schatzberg; International Perspectives on Chemistry Education Research and Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.
network can be used to help science teachers and textbooks designers select visual representations, and determine possible causes of relevant students’ misconceptions (32). Considering the implications of this study for teaching and learning, it can be suggested that the textbook visualizations can be accompanied with dynamic visualizations such as videos for macroscopic level and animation for the particulate level. In addition, even though the textbooks include less number of multiple representations, chemistry teachers may plan their lessons to help students make connections between more than two types of representations for the same chemical phenomenon. Further directions from this study may include the consideration of perspectives of teachers and students. Because even though textbooks include a rich selection of visualizations, it is critical to explore what students understand from each type of visualizations, and how teachers make use of them in their classes. Textbooks have been important resources both for students and teachers; thus careful attention should be given in developing and using them.
Acknowledgments I would like to acknowledge Ms. Ilgım Özergun for her help in coding.
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