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Fossil Fuels
Compositional Effect of Gasoline on Fuel Economy and Emissions Yongqiang Han, Shicheng Hu, Yuncai Sun, Xingyu Sun, Manzhi Tan, Yun Xu, Jing Tian, Runzhao Li, and Zhujie Shao Energy Fuels, Just Accepted Manuscript • DOI: 10.1021/acs.energyfuels.8b00722 • Publication Date (Web): 04 Apr 2018 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on April 4, 2018
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Energy & Fuels
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Compositional Effect of Gasoline on Fuel Economy and Emissions
2 3
Yongqiang Han1, Shicheng Hu1, Yuncai Sun2, Xingyu Sun2, Manzhi Tan1*, Yun Xu1, Jing Tian1,
4
Runzhao Li1, Zhujie Shao1
5
1
6
China
7
2
State Key Laboratory of Automotive Simulation and Control, Jilin University, Changchun 130025,
Shandong Chambroad Petreochemicals Co. Ltd, Shandong 256500, China
8 9
ABSTRACT
10 11
In the paper, fuel economy and emissions of a port-fuel-injection (PFI) engine fueled with four
12
gasoline were experimentally investigated so as to verify the validity and universality of the
13
conclusions from the previous experiment conducted in a gasoline direct injection (GDI) engine. Based
14
on the previous results, which showed that aromatics and short-chain alkanes were beneficial to
15
improving fuel economy and that oxygenated fuels could reduce emissions to some extent, commercial
16
gasoline with research number of 92 and three customized gasoline with different aromatics,
17
short-chain alkanes and oxygen contents were chosen to conduct comparative tests in a wide range of
18
working speeds (1000–3600 rpm) without any modification on the engine systems. Results show that:
19
Aromatics do have great advantages on fuel economy under all operating conditions while the mean
*
Corresponding author.
E-mail address:
[email protected] (M. Tan). 1
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fuel-saving ratio (FSR) of gasoline F with highest aromatics content could reach 5.25% under stable
21
operating conditions. Moreover, short-chain alkanes show the good superiority of saving fuel
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consumption at light and medium loads of medium speeds while the mean FSR of gasoline L with
23
higher short-chain alkanes content is 3.55%. As to oxygenated fuels, gasoline E with higher oxygen
24
content, in which methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) is used as oxygen additive, shows the good
25
capability of balancing fuel consumption and emissions. Therefore, it has been proved that the previous
26
results are valid and that the practical impacts on the performances of main engines applied in the
27
markets accord with the expectations.
28 29
Keywords:
30
Fuel economy; Emissions; Aromatics; Short-chain alkanes; Oxygenated fuel
31
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1. INTRODUCTION
33
With the extensive applications of internal combustions engines (ICE), fuel resources are depleted
34
and atmospheric environment is becoming terrible1-3. To solve the problems of energy dilemma and
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environmental deterioration, various countries in the world have introduced a series of policies to
36
restrict exhaust emissions and fuel consumption in succession4. Under this circumstance, engine
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technology and fuel property have made great progress in recent decades5-8. Advanced engine
38
technologies such as GDI and turbocharging have been widely applied to practical productions8-10. In
39
addition, the researches about new combustion models have gained many breakthroughs, just like
40
stratified charge spark ignition (SCSI), homogeneous charge spark ignition (HCSI), and homogeneous
41
charge compression ignition (HCCI)11, 12. However, in order to maximize the advantages of advanced
42
engine technologies, it is necessary to optimize gasoline composition and improve the quality of
43
gasoline. And in this way, the fuels could be combined with advanced engine technologies to meet the
44
rigorous emissions and fuel consumption legislations.
45
As to gasoline, on account of fossil energy crisis, there are many studies aiming at finding
46
alternatives, especially reproducible biofuels, among which ethanol, methanol, isobutanol, n-butanol
47
and acetone are considered as the most promising alternative fuels13, 14. Doğan et al.15 studied the effect
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of ethanol-gasoline blends on performance and exhaust emissions in a spark ignition (SI) engine and
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found that ethanol-gasoline was able to reduce carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2) and
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nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions without significant loss of power compared to gasoline by energy
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analysis. Costagliola et al.16 investigated the combustion efficiency and emissions of an SI engine
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fueled with alcohol-gasoline blends and found that the blended fuels were beneficial to the reduction of
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particulate emissions. The gasoline blended with ethanol has been universally used in Americas where 3
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the local agriculture is well-developed17. Moreover, other oxygenated fuels also have been widely
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investigated, such as ether, ester and ketone18-22. Li et al.23-25 investigated the effect of
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acetone-butanol-ethanol
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isopropanol-butanol-ethanol (IBE) gasoline on combustion and performance of the engine. The
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experiment results showed that IBE30 (30vol.% IBE and 70vol.% gasoline ), ABE30 and ABE29W1
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(29vol.% ABE, 1vol.% water and 70vol.% gasoline) performed better than pure gasoline with respect
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to engine performance and emissions. Elfasakhany26, 27 researched the use of n-butanol-gasoline blends
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and isobutanol-gasoline blends in an SI engine and found that blended fuels, compared to neat gasoline,
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could reduce CO, CO2 and UHC emissions but would make the power decline. Schifter et al.28 studied
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the effect of ethanol, ethyl tertiary butyl ether (ETBE) and dimethyl carbonate (DMC) blended with
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gasoline on a single cylinder SI engine and found that oxygenated fuels made more homogeneous
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cycle-by-cycle operation and DMC and ethanol could increase combustion speed under the operating
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conditions of lean air-fuel ratio. Topgül29 investigated performance and emissions of the engine fueled
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with MTBE and gasoline blends with various blending rates (0, 5, 10, 20 and 30 vol.% MTBE). The
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experiment results indicated that MTBE blends could improve brake thermal efficiency and decrease
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brake specific energy consumption and that CO and HC emissions would reduce with the increase of
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MTBE content in the blended fuels. On the whole, the previous studies about oxygenated fuels
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revealed that oxygenated fuels do have great potentials to alternate fossil fuels and optimize
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performances of engines30, 31.
(ABE)
gasoline,
water-containing
ABE
gasoline
and
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However, there are also restrictions in the practical applications of these alternative fuels, for
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instances, raw materials production cost, transition cost and storage capacity. For example,
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ethanol-gasoline has been widely used in America and Brazil, while it is not general in Chinese markets. 4
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Therefore, it is important and meaningful to research the effect of different hydrocarbons which are the
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main components of gasoline on the performances of engines. Recently, fine particulate matter (PM 2.5)
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has seriously influenced lives of human beings and received extensive concerns. Hence, there are many
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studies about particulate emissions32-35. Yao et al.36 found that the ultrafine particle emissions of GDI
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engines, especially the nucleation mode particles, increased with the increment of aromatics content
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under warm engine operating conditions and that heavy aromatics (aromatics with c>9) content has a
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more significant effect on ultrafine particles. Wang et al.37 studied the impact of fuel compositions on
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the particulate emissions in a GDI engine fueled with six test fuels with different aromatics, olefin,
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sulfur, Methyl-cyclopentadienyl Manganese Tricarbonyl (MMT), ethanol contents. The experiment
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results showed that the higher aromatics content would lead to higher particle mass (PM), particle
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number (PN) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) emission and much higher toxicity to
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human health and that the lower olefin content was beneficial to reduce PM and PN emissions
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especially under high load engine operation conditions.
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These researches above provided references to the gasoline compositions, but their objectives were
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to reduce emissions and meet the more stringent emissions regulations. On the other hand, facing with
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the stricter fuel consumptions legislations, it is urgent to optimize gasoline components because there is
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a long way for ICE to completely step down from the stage of history38-40. Cooperating with advanced
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engine technologies, the high-quality gasoline could further improve fuel economy. The current fuel
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consumption standard of light-duty cars in China is 6.7L/100km which will be cut to 5.0L/100km in
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2020, 4.0L/100km in 2025, and 3.2L/100km in 2030. According to the International Energy Agency
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(IEA), 70% of light-duty vehicles and passenger cars will still be using gasoline engines in 2020. And
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by 2050, 58% of passenger cars will still be powered by ICE40, 41. Nevertheless, there are not many 5
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studies aiming at improving fuel economy by optimizing gasoline compositions and also not enough
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investigations about the effect of alkanes in gasoline on fuel economy42. Previous studies had
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researched the effect of aromatics, alkanes and MTBE on the performance of GDI engine. The
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experiment results indicated that aromatics had a good impact on fuel economy under all operating
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conditions and that short-chain alkanes had a good potential to reduce fuel consumption at light and
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medium loads of medium speeds43. It had also been found that oxygenated fuels were able to reduce
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emissions to a certain degree43, 44. Based on these conclusions, commercial gasoline with research
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number of 92 and three gasoline with different aromatics, short-chain alkanes and oxygen contents
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were used in a PFI engine to verify the validity and universality of the previous results.
107 108
2. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
109
2.1 Test engine and instruments
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The test engine was a four-cylinder, natural-aspirated, multi-point PFI engine, and the detailed
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specifications of the engine are given in Table 1. In order to acquire fuel consumption and exhaust
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emissions, a fuel consumption meter (ONO SOKKI-DF2420) and an exhaust gas analyzer
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(HORIBA-MEXA-7400DRGE) were utilized in the test system. The engine was connected to an eddy
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current dynamometer (Luoyang Nanfeng-CW260) controlled by a measuring and controlling system
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(FST-Open) by which engine speed and torque could be changed according to experiment plan. In
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addition, the intake pressure, intake temperature, oil temperature and water temperature could be
117
real-time displayed and recorded to monitor engine status through this measuring and controlling
118
system. The measuring range and accuracy of the experimental apparatus are listed in Table 2. The
119
layout schematic of test engine and instruments are presented in Fig. 1. 6
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Table 1
122
Engine specifications. Item
Specification
Engine type
SI engine
Air inlet
Natural inspiration
Fuel injection
Port fuel injection
Number of valves
4
Number of cylinders
4
Bore
77.4mm
Stroke
85mm
Compression ratio
10:1
Displacement
1.599L
Ignition sequence
1-3-2-4
123 124
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Table 2
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Measuring range, accuracy of the experimental apparatus. Apparatus
Measuring range
Accuracy(±)
Engine speed
0-7500 rpm
0.1%
Torque
0-500 Nm
0.4%
CO emission
0-10 vol.%
0.5%
NOx emission
0-5000 ppm
0.5%
THC emission
0-5000 ppm
0.5%
Fuel flow meter
0-100 L/h
0.1%
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Pressure sensor
Oil tank
Thermal sensor
Fuel flow meter
Throttle valve
Oil rail
Air cleaner
Air
Injector
ECU
Dynamometer
Data monitor and acquisition system
Thermal sensor
EGR valve
Dynamometer controller
Exhausts
128 129
Fig. 1. Engine setup.
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Emissions analyzer
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2.2 Test fuels
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In this study, commercial gasoline with research octane number of 92 and other three test gasoline
133
with different contents of aromatics, short-chain alkanes and oxygen were chosen to investigate the
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compositional effect of gasoline. According to the previous experimental results, which found that
135
aromatics were able to improve fuel economy under all operating conditions and that short-chain
136
alkanes had a good potential to save fuel consumption under light and medium loads at low speeds,
137
three customized gasoline, referred to as gasoline F, L and E respectively, were used to compare with
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the commercial gasoline referred to as gasoline C43. Gasoline F, with higher content of aromatics,
139
aimed to optimize fuel economy under all operating conditions. Gasoline L, with higher content of
140
short-chain alkanes, was designed to decrease fuel consumption at light and medium loads of low
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speeds. Gasoline E, in which MTBE was used as oxygen additive, had higher oxygen content with
142
lower cost. The test fuels were modulated by Shandong Jingbo Petrochemical Co. Ltd according to the
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needs of the experiments. Moreover, short-chain alkanes were defined as alkanes and alkenes with less
144
than 7 carbon atoms. The properties and compositional contents of test fuels provided by Shandong
145
Jingbo Petrochemical Co. Ltd are listed in Table 3.
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Table 3
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Properties of the test fuels.
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Fuel
C
L
F
E
Research Octane Number (RON)
92.9
85.3
87.2
90
Density [kg/m3](20ºC)
738.1
749.8
758.7
747.4
Vapor pressure[kPa]
61.25
48.25
49
53.1
Aromatics%
25.1
36.45
44.27
32.95
Alkenes%
9.5
1.1
0.85
1.2
Alkanes(C≤6)%
-
23.68
21.58
21.05
Oxygen content %
1.71
0.003
0.003
13.03
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2.3 Test conditions and parameters
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In this study, load-characteristics of the engine were tested at 9 speeds-1000, 1300, 1500, 1800, 2000,
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2400, 2800, 3200 and 3600rpm. At each speed, different load rates were chosen to ensure adequate
153
operating conditions and abundant testing data45. And the decisions of speeds and loads were on the
154
basis of Chinese standards GB/T 14951-2007 and GB/T 18297-200146, 47. In order to ensure the test
155
results repeatable and reliable, important operating parameters, such as coolant temperature and oil
156
temperature were kept stable in the experiment. The coolant temperature and the oil temperature were
157
maintained at 80±5 ℃ and 90±10 ℃ , respectively. Furthermore, before the beginning of data
158
acquisition, the engine was required to run for an extended period of time under each operating
159
conditions to ensure steady-state measurements. Fuel consumption data were acquired over a 20-s
160
period for three times and then were averaged. The CO, THC and NOx emissions and AFR were
161
measured every second and averaged over a 30-s period. Besides, the test was conducted in a
162
temperature-controlled laboratory during several consecutive days, so the effect of humidity was
163
assumed to be negligible. Since the experimental study was aimed at practical applications, which
164
meant that the objective of this research was to reduce volume consumption of gasoline. Therefore, the
165
fuel consumption of gasoline L, F and E were converted into volume consumption and then were
166
compared with gasoline C. The fuel-saving ratio (FSR) was calculated by the formula (1).
167 168
FSR = (1 −
ୗେ(//) ୗେ(େ)
(େ)
∙ (//)) × 100%
Where BSFC is brake specific fuel consumption and ρ refers to fuel density.
169
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3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
171
3.1 Comparison of fuel economy for different gasoline
172
Fig. 2 shows the FSRs of gasoline L, F, and E at different speeds. As indicated in Fig. 2, there are obvious
173
fluctuations of FSRs under light loads (torque80Nm, speed2000rpm), the performance of gasoline F and E is obviously better than
184
gasoline L due to their higher research octane numbers. It could be concluded that anti-knock capability plays an
185
important role in saving fuel consumption under knock-sensitive operating conditions. In general, the distributions
186
of FSRs of three gasoline have similar characteristics, which indicates that the test system is reliable.
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25
FSR of gasoline L /%
15
1300 1800 2400 3200
5 -5 0
40
80
120
-15 -25
188
1000 1500 2000 2800 3600
40 30 20
0 0
-20
Torque/Nm
50
100
Torque/Nm 1000 1500 2000 2800 3600
17
1300 1800 2400 3200
9 1 0
50
100
150
-7 -15
1300 1800 2400 3200
10
25
189 190
1000 1500 2000 2800 3600
-10
FSR of gasoline E /%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Energy & Fuels
FSR of gasoline F /%
Page 15 of 37
Torque/Nm
Fig. 2. The FSRs of gasoline L, F and E under different operating conditions.
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Fig. 3 and 4 compare the mean FSR of gasoline L, F and E under different operating conditions. As shown in
193
Fig. 3, the mean FSRs of full operating conditions, stable operating conditions (speed>2000rpm,
194
100Nm>torque>50Nm) and unstable operating conditions (speed80Nm) are compared.
195
Apparently, gasoline L, F and E are able to optimize fuel economy under stable and full operating conditions,
196
especially gasoline F. It could be concluded that high aromatics contents are beneficial to saving fuel consumption.
197
And the higher aromatics content, the better performance of fuel economy. Under stable operating conditions,
198
gasoline F with the highest aromatics content presents the best fuel economy while the mean FSR could reach
199
5.25%. Furthermore, the mean FSR of gasoline L and E under these operating conditions also verify the result that
200
the higher aromatics content, to a certain degree, is conductive to the improvement of fuel economy. However,
201
aromatics content is not the only factor influencing fuel economy. The aromatics content of gasoline L is higher
202
than that of gasoline E, but the mean FSR of gasoline L is 1.96%, which is lower than that of gasoline E under full
203
operating conditions. On the whole, gasoline L can hardly save fuel consumption because of deteriorated fuel
204
economy under unstable operating conditions as a result of the lower research octane number and the stronger
205
tendency of knock combustion. The higher oxygen content of gasoline E makes for the improvement of the
206
oxygen content of mixture and combustion velocity so that the combustion process could be optimized. As a
207
consequence, the higher oxygen content, to some extent, is helpful for fuel economy by virtue of better
208
combustion process. In contrast, under unstable operating conditions, the mean FSR of three gasoline present great
209
dependency on octane number, as these operating conditions are knock-sensitive under which knock is a key
210
factor influencing the overall performance of the engine. The mean FSR of gasoline L under unstable operating
211
conditions is -12.58% which is 7.63% and 7.75% lower than that of gasoline F and E, respectively. The fuel
212
economy of gasoline F is not better than that of gasoline E under unstable operating conditions although gasoline F,
213
obviously, has the higher aromatics content. In general, aromatics content has a great influence on fuel economy if 16
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the octane number of fuels meets the requirement of the engine. The octane number representing the anti-knock
215
capability of fuels also influences fuel economy to some extent, especially under knock-sensitive operating
216
conditions, but the effect is limited. The higher oxygen content is capable of optimizing combustion process so as
217
to decrease fuel consumption, nonetheless, the impact on fuel economy is not as deep as that of aromatics.
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Energy & Fuels
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5.25 3.68
4
2.77 1.55
1
Mean FSR /%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
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-2
2.02
0.06
L
F
E
-5 -4.95
-4.83
-8 Full conditions -11
219 220
-14
Stable conditions Unstable conditions
-12.58
Fig. 3. The mean FSRs of gasoline L, F and E under different operating conditions.
221
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Fig. 4 compares the mean FSRs of different speed ranges and load ranges of gasoline L, F and E. As indicated in
223
Fig. 4, the mean FSR of gasoline F reaches the maximum value of 6.96% at 2000rpm. Moreover, it also reaches the
224
maximum value of 5.23% at 30-60Nm. It means that gasoline F shows great superiority in different speed and load
225
ranges, especially at medium and high speeds and medium loads. It could certainly confirm the conclusion that
226
aromatics are beneficial to improving fuel economy under all operating conditions. Nevertheless, gasoline E with
227
lower aromatics contents and higher oxygen content performs better than gasoline L with higher aromatics content,
228
especially at low speeds and heavy loads. The mean FSRs of gasoline E at 1000-1300rpm and 100-130Nm are 2.84%
229
and 6.71% higher than those of gasoline L, respectively, as a result of the higher research octane number and oxygen
230
content of gasoline E. It indicates that the fuel consumption mainly depends on octane number under
231
knock-sensitive operating conditions and that the higher oxygen content could benefit fuel economy, which is in
232
correspondence with the results concluded from Fig. 2 and 3. As to gasoline L, the red curves in the two graphs are
233
like arrows pointing to 2400-2800rpm and 30-60Nm where the mean FSRs are 3.55% and 2.50%, respectively. It
234
proclaims that gasoline L has great capabilities to save fuel consumption at medium speeds and light loads, which is
235
also consistent with the results of previous experimental study conducted on a GDI engine. Comparing gasoline L
236
with gasoline F, it could be found that fuel consumption is sensitive to the aromatics content, especially under stable
237
operating conditions. The aromatics content of gasoline F is 7.82% higher than that of gasoline L while the
238
difference of mean FSRs between the two gasoline is 2.20-7.69%.
239
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Mean FSR of different load ranges
Mean FSR of different speed ranges
L
L F E
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1000-1300
8 5
F
7
E
2
2 3200-3600
100-130
-4
2400-2800
-3
1500-1800
-1
-8
30-60
2000
60-100
240 241
0-30
Fig. 4. The mean FSRs of gasoline L, F and E in different speed ranges and load ranges.
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Fig. 5 shows the FSR characteristics maps of gasoline L, F and E. As indicated in Fig. 5, there are evident belt
244
regions between 1800rpm to 2000rpm for the three gasoline where the curves are dense. It is the change of engine
245
control strategy that makes the fuel consumption sensitive to the change of engine speed at this speed range. In the
246
left upper corner of three graphs, there are three blue areas where the fuel economy deteriorates seriously due to the
247
bad combustion process. It is evident that the proportion of the blue area of gasoline E is the smallest due to the
248
higher octane number. It could be concluded that the research octane number is the main cause for the performance
249
of fuel economy under knock-sensitive operating conditions, which further confirms the conclusions above.
250
Furthermore, the hue of the blue area of gasoline F is the lightest, indicating that the fuel consumption has not
251
deteriorated as seriously as the other gasoline. It also proves that, from another perspective, aromatics are capable of
252
improving the performance of fuel economy under all operating conditions. When compared with gasoline L and E,
253
there is an obvious dark green triangle area at 1800-3000rpm and in the graph of gasoline F. In addition, there are
254
also multiple roundabouts at high speeds which presents the advantages of gasoline F under economical operating
255
conditions. As a consequence, the features of the graph of gasoline F have made sure the effect of aromatics on fuel
256
economy. On the other hand, in the graph of gasoline L, an evident yellow roundabout and some small red dots
257
appear in the region of medium speeds and light loads. It indicates that, under these operating conditions, the
258
performance of fuel economy is better. Moreover, it also confirms the conclusion that short-chain alkanes could
259
decrease fuel consumption under these operating conditions of medium speeds and light loads.
260
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261
262 263
Fig. 5. The FSR characteristics maps for gasoline L, F and E.
264
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Energy & Fuels
3.2 Comparison of CO, THC and NOx emissions for different gasoline
266
Fig. 6 compares CO, THC and NOx emissions and AFR of gasoline C, L, F and E at low speed-1000rpm. As
267
shown in Fig. 6, at heavy loads, CO and THC emissions deteriorate seriously due to the unstable status of the
268
engine and lack of oxygen. It is obvious that the CO and THC emissions of gasoline L, F and E are higher than
269
that of gasoline C. Gasoline C presents the 42.9% lower CO emissions and the 60.4% lower THC emissions than
270
other three gasoline, from which it could be concluded that octane number is the key factor influencing engine
271
performance under these operating conditions. Similar to the performance of fuel consumption, anti-knock
272
characteristics is the dominant factor affecting the emissions of incomplete combustion products under
273
knock-sensitive operating conditions. However, at light and medium loads, as indicated in the small windows, the
274
CO emissions and THC emissions of gasoline C do not show any superiorities than that of other three gasoline. On
275
the contrary, gasoline L and F show some advantages on the CO and THC emissions because the octane numbers
276
of two gasoline are lower than 92 which is in favor of shortening ignition delay to optimize combustion process
277
and make combustion more complete. Gasoline L could reduce CO and THC emissions by 21.3-73.7% and
278
35.8-70.6%, respectively. Gasoline F could decrease CO and THC emissions by 24.7-73.7% and 27.9-61.8%,
279
respectively. Furthermore, the CO and THC emissions of gasoline E are not as good as those of gasoline L and F.
280
However, gasoline E also presents the 26.9%-66.7% lower CO emissions and the 6.9%-62.0% lower THC
281
emissions than gasoline C as a result of the higher oxygen content. It means that the higher oxygen content is
282
beneficial to increasing the oxygen content of the mixture so that the incomplete combustion products could be
283
decreased. As to NOx emissions, it increases dramatically for four gasoline at heavy loads. It is the quickly
284
increased in-cylinder temperature that leads to the highest NOx emissions. And the performance of gasoline C is
285
not better than those of other three gasoline. Moreover, there is no evident discrimination of NOx emissions for the
286
four gasoline at medium and light loads. 23
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Page 25 of 37
3.5 0.5
CO emissions /%
3
C L F E
1000rpm
0.4 0.3
2.5
0.2 2
0.1 0
1.5
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
1 0.5 0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100 110
Load Rate/%
288 5500
250
5000
THC emissions /ppm
4000
150
3500
100
3000
50
2500
0
C
1000rpm
200
4500
L F E
0
2000
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
1500 1000 500 0 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100 110
90
100 110
Load Rate/%
289 500
150
450
C L F E
1000rpm
120
400
NOx emissions /ppm
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Energy & Fuels
90
350
60
300
30
250
0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
200 150 100 50 0 0
290
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Load Rate/%
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Energy & Fuels
14.5 1000rpm 14
13.5
AFR
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
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13 C L F E
12.5
12 0
291 292
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100 110
Load Rate/% Fig. 6. CO, THC and NOx emissions and AFR for gasoline C, L, F and E at 1000rpm.
293
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Fig. 7 compares CO, THC and NOx emissions and AFR of four gasoline at the commonly used speed of
295
light-duty vehicles-2000rpm. As indicated in Fig. 7, at light loads, the CO and THC emissions of gasoline L
296
deteriorate seriously due to over rich mixture as shown in the graph of AFR. Moreover, the CO and THC
297
emissions of gasoline F and E also increase dramatically because of the same reason. At light loads, the intake
298
temperature and the vapor pressure of gasoline L are lower, which results in bad nebulization and insufficient
299
blend of air and fuel. Therefore, the CO and THC emissions of gasoline L are not as good as that of other three
300
gasoline. In addition, it is evident that gasoline L, F and E, compared to gasoline C, could reduce CO emissions at
301
medium loads as shown in the small window. Gasoline L, F and E present the 32.8-89.3%, 51.0-89.3% and
302
22.3-55.8% lower CO emissions than gasoline C, respectively. Although the oxygen content of gasoline E is
303
higher, the CO emissions of gasoline F and L are lower due to the higher AFR. However, there are no significant
304
differences among the four gasoline in the THC emissions. It means that high aromatics contents would not make
305
CO and THC emissions deteriorate. On the other hand, the NOx emissions of gasoline L and F increase at medium
306
loads as the combustion process is more complete and the AFR is higher which are in favor of the production of
307
NOx.
308
On the whole, higher aromatics and short-chain alkanes contents would not lead to the increasement in CO and
309
THC emissions. In contrast, the gasoline with higher aromatics and short-chain alkanes contents even could
310
reduce CO and THC emissions to some extent. But they are not beneficial to controlling NOx emissions,
311
especially under stable operating conditions. Nonetheless, taking the advanced emissions reprocessing
312
technologies into consideration, the influences do not matter seriously.
313
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Energy & Fuels
1.8
0.25
C L F E
2000rpm
0.2
1.5
CO emissions /%
0.15 0.1
1.2
0.05 0.9
0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0.6
0.3
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100 110
Load Rate/%
314 1200
250
C L F E
2000rpm 200
THC emissions /ppm
1000
150
800 100
600
50 20
30
40
50
60
70
80 90
400 200 0 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100 110
Load Rate/%
315 600
2000rpm
C L F E
500
NOx emissions /ppm
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
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400 300 200 100 0 0
316
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Load Rate/%
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90
100 110
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14.4 2000rpm 14.2 14
AFR
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Energy & Fuels
13.8 C L F E
13.6 13.4 13.2 0
317 318
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100 110
Load Rate/% Fig. 7. CO, THC and NOx emissions and AFR for gasoline C, L, F and E at 2000rpm.
319
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4. CONCLUSIONS
321
In this study, the compositional effect of gasoline on fuel economy and emissions were experimentally
322
investigated in PFI engine so as to confirm the correctness and universality of the conclusions from the previous
323
experimental study. The results prove the practicality of the previous conclusions that aromatics could benefit fuel
324
economy under all operating conditions and that short-chain alkanes have a good potential to reduce fuel
325
consumption at light and medium loads of medium speeds. The main results are summarized as follows:
326
1.
Gasoline L, F and E with the higher aromatics content, compared with gasoline C, have great advantages
327
on saving fuel consumption under all operating conditions, which confirms that aromatics are able to
328
improve fuel economy. The mean FSR of gasoline F with the highest aromatics content is 3.68%,
329
presenting comprehensive superiorities than other test gasoline. It also could be found that fuel
330
consumption is sensitive to the change of aromatics content.
331
2.
Gasoline L with the highest short-chain alkanes content shows good performance of fuel economy at light
332
and medium loads of medium speeds while the maximum FSR is 3.55%. It also verifies that short-chain
333
alkanes do have great advantages on fuel economy under specific operating conditions.
334
3.
The performance of fuel economy of gasoline E whose oxygen content is the highest but aromatics content
335
is the lowest among three customized gasoline is only inferior to gasoline F. It indicates that higher oxygen
336
content could benefit fuel economy to some extent. In addition, the research octane number tokening the
337
anti-knock characteristics plays a more important role in fuel consumption under knock-sensitive operating
338
conditions.
339
4.
In general, the emissions of gasoline L, F and E are not worse than those of gasoline C. Gasoline F and L
340
with the higher aromatics content are even capable of reducing CO and THC emissions. Although the NOx
341
emissions of gasoline F and L deteriorate at medium loads, it does not matter seriously when three-way 30
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catalyst is taken into consideration. It means that the emissions would not deteriorate with the improvement
343
of fuel economy.
344
345
AUTHOR INFORMATION
346
Corresponding Author
347
*E-mail:
[email protected] 348
ORCID
349
Manzhi Tan: 0000-0002-5142-4212
350
Notes
351
The authors declare no competing financial interest.
352 353
354
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
355
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support to the research provided by the National Natural
356
Science Foundation of China (No.51576089).
357
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