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Dairy Products and Health: Recent Insights Michael H. Tunick, and Diane L. Van Hekken J. Agric. Food Chem., Just Accepted Manuscript • DOI: 10.1021/jf5042454 • Publication Date (Web): 13 Nov 2014 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on November 16, 2014

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Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry is published by the American Chemical Society. 1155 Sixteenth Street N.W., Washington, DC 20036 Published by American Chemical Society. Copyright © American Chemical Society. However, no copyright claim is made to original U.S. Government works, or works produced by employees of any Commonwealth realm Crown government in the course of their duties.

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Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry

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Dairy Products and Health: Recent Insights

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Michael H. Tunick* and Diane L. Van Hekken

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Dairy and Functional Foods Research Unit, Eastern Regional

6

Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department

7

of Agriculture, 600 East Mermaid Lane, Wyndmoor, PA 19038 USA

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ABSTRACT:

Milk, cheese, yogurt, and other dairy products have

10

long been known to provide good nutrition.

11

contributors to the diets of many people include the protein,

12

minerals, vitamins, and fatty acids present in milk.

13

studies have shown that consumption of dairy products appears to

14

be beneficial in muscle building, lowering blood pressure and

15

low density lipoprotein cholesterol, and prevention of tooth

16

decay, diabetes, cancer, and obesity.

17

be provided by organic milk and by probiotic microorganisms

18

using milk products as a vehicle.

19

products and nutrition will improve our understanding of the

20

connections between these products, the bioactive compounds in

21

them, and their effects on the human body.

Recent

Additional benefits might

New research on dairy

22 23

Major healthful

KEYWORDS: Dairy, health, nutrition

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INTRODUCTION

26 27

Dairy products have long been advertised as being excellent

28

sources of nutrition, and a large segment of the U.S. population

29

consumes them as a part of a well-balanced diet.

30

investigations have suggested benefits from dairy products

31

beyond the classic “building strong bones.”

32

milk and milk products play roles that were not imagined just

33

one or two generations ago, such as benefits to gastrointestinal

34

health and the immune system.1

35

from the proteins, minerals, vitamins, lipids, and carbohydrates

36

in dairy products, the amounts of which have been tabulated by

37

the USDA2 and are compared in Table 1.

Recent

Some components in

These advantageous effects arise

Earlier perceptions of dairy products being harmful to

38 39

health are no longer supported by the evidence.

The most-cited

40

general review in the past ten years that highlighted the

41

advantages conveyed by dairy products was by Huth et al.3.

42

review was written in 2005, and much has been accomplished since

43

then.

44

contributions to human health of the components in milk and

45

products derived from milk.

46

compounds will also be discussed, as will differences between

47

organic milk and milk from herds under conventional management.

The

This paper will cover more recent findings concerning the

Using milk to deliver bioactive

48



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PROTEIN

50 51

About 80% of the protein in milk consists of αs1-, αs2-, β-, and

52

κ-caseins, and about 20% is classified as whey protein, which is

53

mostly α-lactalbumin, β-lactoglobulin, and serum albumin.

54

fat globule membrane (MFGM) protein represents a small

55

percentage and is described in the lipids section below.

56

Food and Agriculture organization of the United Nations has

57

recommended a new assessment method that ranks proteins based on

58

the bioavailability of their amino acids, and milk protein

59

scores high on their list.4 The Digestible Indispensable Amino

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Acid Score reveals that the true digestibility values of milk

61

protein (95%) and of casein alone (94.1%) are higher than those

62

of soy, pea, wheat, lupin, and rapeseed proteins (84-91.5%).4

63

number of milk-derived peptides have been found to be bioactive

64

and have been added to commercial products such as soft drinks.5

65

Most of these products are not available in the US.

66

benefits of dairy proteins are described below.

67

Building and maintaining muscle mass.

Milk

The

A

The

Over one third of

68

those who exercise say they seek out products that contain

69

protein in order to help build and maintain strong, healthy

70

muscles.6 Of the amino acids in whey protein, 26% are of the

71

branched chain variety (notably leucine), which have been

72

identified in building muscle mass.6

The amino acid composition


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of whey proteins is quite similar to that of skeletal muscle,

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making whey an effective anabolic supplement.6

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interested in physical fitness often supplement their diet with

76

whey protein concentrate (containing less than 90% protein) or

77

isolate (at least 90% protein).

78

People who are

Whey protein powders are obtained from cheesemaking, which

79

generates on average 10 kg liquid whey for every kilogram of

80

cheese produced.

81

1, contain little whey.

82

600 participants supported a modest favorable effect of whey

83

protein on body composition, with significant decreases in body

84

weight and body fat when whey protein was provided as a dietary

85

replacement and resistance exercise was performed.7

86

Most cheeses, including the Cheddar in Table A meta-analysis of 14 studies and over

Older people often eat less than half of the recommended

87

daily intake of protein, which may lead to sarcopenia, a loss of

88

muscle mass. People are strongly motivated to keep their health

89

and independence as they age, and they feel that maintaining

90

strong bones and muscles will help them accomplish this.1

91

Ingestion of whey protein by 15 subjects aged 60-85 has been

92

found to improve accrual of skeletal muscle, and this increase

93

of muscle mass was greater than that obtained by ingesting a

94

mixture of the amino acids found in whey.8

95

practical implications for the formulation of nutritional

96

supplements.


This finding may have


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Casein may also promote muscle building.

A study of 56

98

novice weightlifters who exercised 1 h/d and 5 d/wk for 12 wk

99

showed that consuming skim milk following their workouts

100

resulted in greater development of lean muscle mass than

101

consumption of soy or carbohydrate drinks.9

102

Blood pressure.

The caseins facilitate absorption of Ca

103

and phosphate in the small intestine and are the main substrates

104

for production of bioactive peptides.10

105

peptides are the product of either fermentation of milk by

106

Lactobacilli or by digestion of milk protein in the small

107

intestine, with the peptides absorbed intact.

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bioactive molecules are lactotripeptides, including Ile-Pro-Pro

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and Val-Pro-Pro, which have been the subject of much research.10

110

Ile-Pro-Pro and Val-Pro-Pro are present in Swiss-type cheeses at

111

concentrations ranging from 19 to 182 mg/kg.11

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lactotripeptides inhibit angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) in

113

vitro.

114

that restricts blood vessels and leads to hypertension, and ACE

115

from milk products have been shown to have a positive

116

association with lower blood pressure.12

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Welsh men over a 22.8-yr period revealed that high milk intake

118

(> 586 mL/d) was associated with lower systolic blood pressure

119

(by 10.4 mm Hg) and less arterial stiffness.

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which had some negative effects, dairy products were found be

These small dairy

Some of these

These

ACE converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II, a hormone

A study of over 2500


Apart from butter,

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cardioprotective.13

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Rotterdam suburb who were at least 55 years old showed that

123

consumption of low-fat dairy products was associated with a 20%

124

reduction in incidence of hypertension.14

125

recent work concluded that the preponderance of evidence

126

indicates a strong likelihood that eating dairy products helps

127

to lower blood pressure.15

128

Dental caries.

A study of over 2200 residents of a

A review of other

Cheese has been tied to protection against

129

dental caries, or tooth decay, through a series of mechanisms

130

that are partially understood and involve more than the presence

131

of Ca.

132

inhibit bacteria, engage in competitive exclusion of enamel

133

binding sites, improve buffering capacity in the pellicle

134

surrounding teeth, reduce enamel demineralization, and improve

135

enamel remineralization.16

136

were removed as factors in one study, milk was found to largely

137

prevent demineralization of teeth, apparently due to proteose-

138

peptone, which is derived from β-casein and is a minor component

139

of whey proteins.17

140

It appears that casein-derived bioactive peptides

Learning and memory.

Even when casein, lactose, and fat

A peptide from β-casein, β-

141

casomorphin-5 (Tyr-Pro-Phe-Pro-Gly), is a µ-opioid receptor

142

agonist (other such agonists, such as morphine, are analgesics)

143

and may assist in learning and memory.

144

dose of β-casomorphin-5 has been shown to alleviate impairment of

Administration of a low



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learning and memory in tests on mice.18

146

important for the psychomotor development of infants, with

147

breast milk having more of an effect than bovine milk.19

148

Cancer.

β-casomorphins are

Studies have shown that the minor milk protein

149

lactoferrin has anticancer properties.

In research on mice

150

containing a human gene that induces lung tumors, lactoferrin

151

significantly decreased the proliferation of cancer cells and

152

lung cell inflammation.20

153

breast cancer cell lines21 and a lactoferrin peptide was shown to

154

reduce DNA damage from colon cancer cells.22

155

succeeded in cloning peptides from lactoferrin and αs1-casein

156

into Streptococcus thermophilus, a common starter culture for

157

cheese and yogurt, which would optimize the activity of these

158

peptides.23

159

cancer cells was demonstrated by peptides isolated from the

160

waste whey from manufacture of water buffalo Mozzarella; β-

161

casomorphin-5 and -7 have been identified in this material.24

Lactoferrin decreased the viability of

Our laboratory has

A significant antiproliferative effect on CaCo2

162 163

MINERALS

164 165

More correctly referred to as dietary elements, Ca, Cu, Fe, K,

166

Mg, Mn, Na, P, Se, and Zn are found in dairy products and are

167

responsible for a number of essential processes in the body.25,26

168

A summary is shown in Table 2.


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An adequate Ca intake increases bone mineral density during

169 170

skeletal growth and prevents bone loss and osteoporotic

171

fractures in the elderly.27

172

intake of dairy Ca is 50-100% more effective than supplemental

173

Ca.5

174

reduced-fat, decrease accumulation of body fat and accelerate

175

loss of weight and fat while dieting.28

176

and animal study using a high-fat diet containing a milk mineral

177

concentrate, the dietary elements significantly attenuated the

178

increase in total and LDL cholesterol concentrations; HDL did

179

not decrease.29

180

through formation of soaps, and also decreases serum cholesterol

181

levels through binding of calcium phosphate with bile acids,

182

which have to be regenerated in the liver from LDL and total

183

cholesterol.30

184

Ca in the diet,3 have been cited as the best sources of Ca due to

185

their high content of this mineral, high absorptive rate, and

186

relatively low cost.31

187

Clinical trials have shown that

Ca and other minerals in dairy products, whether full- or

In a short-term human

Ca reduces absorption of fat in the intestine

Dairy products, which supply at least 70% of the

Obesity, glucose intolerance, hypertension, and

188

dyslipidemia (elevated blood lipids) are components of metabolic

189

syndrome, which increases the risk for type 2 diabetes mellitus

190

(T2DM) and heart disease.

191

syndrome and T2DM appear to decrease as dairy food consumption

192

increases, a result that was associated with intake of dairy

Components of insulin resistance



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foods, Ca, and vitamin D.32

194

28-60, a higher intake of dairy products was associated with

195

improvement in the metabolic profile in a 5-y period, and a

196

higher Ca intake was associated with a lower 5-y increase of the

197

BMI and waist circumference.33

198

observed in the 300 women in the study, however, which the

199

authors suggest may have been due to sex-related behaviors and

200

attitudes toward diet and lifestyle.

In a French study of 288 men aged

No significant difference was

201 202

VITAMINS

203 204

Milk is a source of all vitamins except vitamin C, which is

205

broken down by pasteurization.

206

for vision and is involved in immune function, reproduction, and

207

cellular communication, differentiation, and growth.34

208

B1 (thiamine) helps with metabolism of branched-chain amino

209

acids, carbohydrates, and fatty acids.26

210

is involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and

211

proteins.26

212

NAD and NADP, which are responsible for catabolism of alcohol,

213

carbohydrates, fats, and protein, and synthesis of

214

macromolecules.26

215

than 100 enzyme reactions, mostly concerned with protein

216

metabolism, and is involved in cognitive development and immune

Vitamin A (retinol) is critical

Vitamin

Vitamin B2 (riboflavin)

Vitamin B3 (niacin) is the precursor for coenzymes

Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) has a role in more


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function.34

218

amino acids.34

219

hemoglobin and to maintain nerve cells.34

220

levels are fortified in milk to help with Ca and phosphate

221

absorption, which promotes bone growth.34

222

is an antioxidant that helps prevent cell injury.34

223

(phylloquinone) and vitamin K2 (the menaquinones), produced by

224

bacteria in fermented dairy products, are necessary for blood

225

clotting.26

226

Vitamin B9 (folate) is used to make DNA, RNA, and Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) helps to create DNA and Vitamin D (calciferol)

Vitamin E (tocopherol) Vitamin K1

A meta-analysis of 16 studies showed that consumption of

227

200 g dairy products per day resulted in a 6% reduction of risk

228

of T2DM, with a significant association between reduction of

229

incidence of T2DM and intake of cheese, yogurt, and low-fat

230

dairy products.35

231

correlation with the presence of vitamins D and K2, which have

232

recently been linked to a reduced risk of T2DM.36

233

used daily food diaries instead of retrospective data (which

234

involves a recall period ranging up to a year) and also found a

235

reduced risk of T2DM.37

236

fermented dairy food (cheese and yogurt) and the result was also

237

attributed to vitamin K2 generated by bacterial fermentation.

238

meta-analysis of over 26,000 cases of colorectal cancer showed

239

that higher consumption of dairy products reduced the risk of

240

colon cancer, with Ca and vitamin D being associated with a

The authors attributed the cheese and yogurt

Another study

This relationship was only observed in


A


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reduction of risk of cancer.38

242

subjects also showed a decreased risk of colorectal cancer with

243

increased consumption of calcium and vitamin D.39

A study of over 800 Japanese

244 245

LIPIDS

246 247

The lipids in milk are in the form of droplets, consisting

248

mostly of triacylglycerols, surrounded by a MFGM containing 60%

249

protein and 40% lipids, including polar lipids (phospholipids

250

and sphingolipids), cholesterol, and some minor components.40 The

251

polar lipids amount to less than 40 mg/100 g milk, but

252

contribute biological activity such as inhibition of colon

253

cancer and intestinal pathogens.40

254

be related to cognitive function.41

255

glycoproteins such as butyrophilin, which may suppress multiple

256

sclerosis, and BRCA1 and BRCA2, which appear to inhibit breast

257

cancer.42

258

Phosphatidylserine seems to The MFGM proteins are mostly

Milkfat, which is approximately 72% saturated, 25%

259

monounsaturated, and 3% polyunsaturated (w/w), carries flavor

260

compounds as well as fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K.43

261

Lipids, though essential for humans, have historically been

262

thought to elevate blood cholesterol and therefore been

263

considered as dangerous to health.

264

changing in recent years.

This attitude has been

A meta-analysis of 76 studies


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concluded that guidelines encouraging high consumption of

266

polyunsaturated fatty acids and low consumption of total

267

saturated fats is not clearly supported by the evidence.44

268

Moreover, dairy products and other foods high in saturated fat

269

contain an array of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, each

270

of which affect metabolism of lipoproteins in various ways.

271

These foods also contribute significant amounts of other

272

nutrients, which may be beneficial.

273

may be healthful are as follows.

274

Cardiovascular disease.

Areas in which milk lipids

Observational studies and meta-

275

analyses have shown no connection between the intake of milk fat

276

and the risk of cardiovascular disease, coronary heart disease,

277

or stroke.

278

consumption of full-fat natural cheese significantly lowers low-

279

density lipoproteins (LDL or “bad cholesterol”) compared with

280

consumption of butter containing the same total fat and

281

saturated fat content.45

282

level of Ca in cheese as well as the presence of fermentation

283

products from the bacteria.

284

study of 1750 Iranian adults was associated with higher HDL and

285

lower LDL, cholesterol, and triglycerides.46

286

theorized that their results could be due to consumption of Ca

287

and fermenting bacteria.

288

products have beneficial effects on plasma lipids and

In fact, most clinical studies have shown that

These results may be due to the high

Higher consumption of cheese in a

The authors

Some studies have shown that yogurt



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lipoproteins, although these advantages appear to be specific to

290

the strain of bacteria used to ferment the product.45

291

Anticarcinogenesis.

In 1996, the National Academy of

292

Sciences stated that conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is the only

293

fatty acid that definitely inhibits carcinogenesis in

294

experimental animals.48

295

models have shown that relatively low dietary levels of CLA

296

inhibit multistage carcinogenesis at different sites.49

297

has also indicated that CLA influences weight control, possibly

298

by exerting an effect on hypothalamic appetite regulation.50

299

is a mixture of isomers of linoleic acid (18:2), with the

300

predominant isomer, rumenic acid (cis-9, trans-11 18:2), being

301

the biologically active form.51

302

sources of CLA in the human diet, and its concentration in these

303

products is not affected by heat processing.52

304

Many studies using in vivo and in vitro

Research

CLA

Dairy products are the major

Trans fatty acids have been implicated in increases in LDL

305

and decreases in high-density lipoprotein (HDL or “good

306

cholesterol”) in humans.

307

trans fatty acids in hydrogenated fats, predominately elaidic

308

acid (trans-9 18:1).

309

amounts in bovine milk.

310

milkfat is rumenic acid and most of the rest is vaccenic acid

311

(trans-11 18:1).53

312

anticarcinogenic properties in humans54 and vaccenic acid may

These effects have been tied to the

Elaidic acid is present in only trace One-fourth of the trans fatty acids in

Rumenic acid may be associated with


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decrease tumor growth and the risk of coronary heart disease.55

314

On average, humans convert about a fifth of dietary vaccenic

315

acid into rumenic acid.56

316

Obesity.

Many people believe that increasing their intake

317

of dairy fat will result in an increase in weight.

318

opposite appears to be the case.

319

rural Swedish men revealed that a high intake of dairy fat was

320

associated with a lower risk of developing central obesity

321

(ratio of waist and hip measurements > 1) and a low dairy fat

322

intake was associated with a higher risk of central obesity.57

323

Moreover, a 9-yr study of over 19000 Swedish women aged 40-55

324

showed that at least one serving per day of whole milk and sour

325

milk and of cheese was inversely associated with weight gain.58

326

The mechanisms for this effect may involve elevated Ca levels

327

resulting in more fecal fat excretion,59 oxidation of fat by Ca,60

328

or satiety effects.

329

However, the

A 12-yr study of over 1500

A study of 70 overweight and obese individuals whose diet

330

was supplemented with whey protein experienced significant

331

decreases in blood triglycerides, total cholesterol, LDL, and

332

insulin levels over 12 wk.61

333

effects of whey protein on cholesterol biogenesis, adsorption,

334

or excretion.

335

men and women on a calorie-restricted diet showed that high

336

dairy consumption significantly increased fat loss.62

The results may have been due to

Another 12-wk study of 108 overweight and obese


The


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authors attributed the effectiveness of the dairy foods to

338

suppression of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, which has been

339

implicated in retention of fat.

340

Inflammation.

A study of sheep milk cheese rich in CLA

341

showed a significant reduction in inflammatory parameters such

342

as interleukin.63

343

anti-inflammatory properties and may also protect against liver

344

damage.64

Phospholipids have been identified as having

345 346

CARBOHYDRATES AND OLIGOSACCHARIDES

347 348

Lactose comprises over 99% of the carbohydrates in milk, with

349

citrate accounting for 0.2%.

350

citrate breakdown, but no health effects have been reported.

351

Lactose stimulates intestinal absorption of Ca65 and can be

352

enzymatically hydrolyzed in the gut to form galacto-

353

oligosaccharides which are readily utilized by Bifidobacteria

354

and contribute to improved digestive function.1

355

the world population is lactose intolerant and cannot digest

356

this carbohydrate, but lactose-reduced milk, developed in our

357

laboratory in the 1970s, allows consumers to drink milk without

358

suffering digestive issues.66

359

fermented dairy products, lactic acid bacteria break down the

360

lactose into digestible glucose and galactose.

Some dairy flavors arise from

The majority of

In cheese, yogurt, and other


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Bovine milk contains about 1 g oligosaccharides/L whereas

362

the concentration in human milk is estimated at 7-12 g/L.5

363

Oligosaccharides in milk pass through the upper gastrointestinal

364

tract and are bioavailable to beneficial bacteria in the colon,

365

stimulating their growth.

366

inhibiting the binding of pathogens and toxins by competing with

367

the host's binding sites.67

368

chains attached and are also protective against microbes,

369

toxins, and viruses in newborns.68

These probiotics are credited with

Glycoproteins have oligosaccharide

370 371

HEALTH ASPECTS OF MILK COMPONENTS IN COMBINATION

372 373

The various components of dairy products confer health benefits

374

when in combination, and the substitution of milk products with

375

other foods adversely impacts the balance of nutrients consumed.

376

Replacing dairy products with foods containing equivalent

377

amounts of Ca has been shown to alter the overall nutritional

378

profile of the diet, affecting intake of protein, magnesium,

379

phosphorus, potassium, and vitamins A, B2, B12, and D.69

380

investigators concluded that eating nondairy Ca replacement

381

foods (such as bony fish, Ca-set tofu, leafy greens, or

382

fortified soy drink, rice drink, or orange juice) is not

383

realistic because these foods are rarely consumed in the amounts

384

needed to replace milk products.69

Some studies have


The


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demonstrated advantages of milk products arising from

386

interactions among the components, as outlined below.

387

Cognitive function.

In a study of nearly 1000 people,

388

participants who ate dairy products at least once per day scored

389

significantly higher in several tests of cognitive function

390

compared with those who rarely or never consumed dairy food.70

391

The reason is not yet known but is likely due to a synergistic

392

effect among several milk components.

393

methodology of eight studies about dementia pointed out that no

394

research has been conducted on dairy intake and cognitive

395

function across all ages, but that a beneficial effect is

396

probably present.71

397

Satiety.

A review of the

Three fourths of shoppers in a survey said they

398

are interested in satiety, the feeling of being full after

399

eating.6

400

that dairy products are viewed by consumers as reasonably

401

satiating; they are not as filling as fruit, meat, nuts, or

402

pasta, but they are on a par with oatmeal and soup, and are

403

considered more filling than snacks such as cookies and potato

404

chips.6

405

weight loss in a study of 49 people, but did increase blood

406

levels of a particular peptide which was associated with greater

407

satiety and reduced fat intake.72

The dairy industry has conducted research revealing

A diet rich in Ca and dairy food did not result in

Consumption of milk products


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may therefore have an indirect role in improving health by

409

enhancing satiety and thus aiding loss of fat and body weight.73

410

Mortality.

A meta-analysis of over 62,000 study

411

participants showed no connection between consumption of milk

412

and all-cause mortality, and a modest inverse correlation with

413

cardiovascular disease.74

414

associated with dairy food intake in a meta-analysis of five

415

studies in England and Wales covering 509,000 deaths in 2008.75

416

The same laboratory found that the risk of stroke also appears

417

decrease with increasing dairy intake, though further research

418

in this area is needed.

419

inhibition of platelet aggregation.76

420

there was a large discrepancy between evidence from long-term

421

studies and perceptions of harm from dairy foods.

All-cause mortality showed a reduction

The cause of this effect may be The authors concluded that

422 423

DELIVERY OF BIOACTIVES

424 425

Dairy products are the primary vehicles for probiotic bacteria,

426

which commonly include species of Lactobacilli, Lactococci, and

427

Bifidobacteria.

428

benefits by improving the balance of microorganisms in the

429

intestine by enhancing the population of beneficial bacteria and

430

suppressing pathogens.77

431

6 showed that milk fortified with Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG

Probiotics are live strains that confer

A study of 571 Finnish children aged 1-



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19 432

stimulated immune response and reduced respiratory infections

433

and days of absence from school.78

434

Casein films exhibit high tensile strength, making them

435

good tablet coatings, and drug-milk prepatrations seem to confer

436

higher bioavailability than drugs alone.79

437

as a natural delivery system, which should lead to their use as

438

nanocarriers.79

439

complexes with other macromolecules, possess good gelation,

440

self-assembly, and surface properties, and exhibit pH-responsive

441

gel swelling behavior that helps with programmable release.80

442

Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), the major extractable

443

polyphenol found in green tea and the most bioactive one, has

444

been shown to prevent proliferation of colon cancer cells.

445

EGCG was nanoencapsulated in casein micelles of skim milk, the

446

proliferation of HT-29 cancer cells in vitro was decreased.81

447

Encapsulation did not decrease the bioavailability of EGCG,

448

which may lead to the development of other delivery systems

449

using casein.

450

mutagenic and anticancer properties, and thymol, an

451

antimicrobial, can be encapsulated in sodium caseinate,

452

improving solubility and presumably bioavailability.82,83

They bind ions and small molecules, form

When

Curcumin, which may have anti-inflammatory, anti-

453 454

Casein micelles act

ORGANIC VS. CONVENTIONAL MILK

455


Page 21 of 43


20 456

In the US, the “organic” regulations for foods were established

457

by the US Department of Agriculture under the National Organic

458

Program in 2000.84

459

as follows.

460

approved organic practices for a full year before the milk that

461

is produced can be certified and sold as organic.

462

must be given feed that is 100% organic, and must obtain a

463

minimum average of 30% of their dry matter intake from pasture

464

during a minimum 120-day grazing season.

465

treated, and if the medicine is not on the approved-for-organic

466

list the animal is no longer considered organic and must be

467

removed from the herd.

468

organic animals must be documented.

469

antibiotics, genetic engineering, and cloning cannot be used in

470

organic systems.

471

regulations, whether they raise animals or grow feed for them.84

472

The most important rules for dairy farms are

Animals must be fed and managed according to

The animals

Sick animals must be

All feed and medicine given to the Growth hormones,

The farming system must adhere to all

The composition of organic and conventional milk are

473

similar except for some of the fatty acids.85

474

is whether the fatty acid profile of milk obtained from organic

475

dairies is more healthful than the milkfat from conventional

476

(not certified as organic) dairies.

477

linolenic, eicosapentaenoic, and docosapentaenoic) are important

478

for cell membrane function, and many studies have shown the

479

beneficial effects of ω-3 fatty acids in cancer prevention,

The key question

CLA and ω-3 fatty acids (α-



Page 22 of 43

21 480

cardiovascular disease, and infant development.86

481

acids also have positive roles in some mental conditions,

482

including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, dementia,

483

and depression.86

484

eicosatrienoic, and arachidonic) are also necessary for health

485

maintenance; the optimum ratio of ω-6 to ω-3 is thought to be

486

about 2.3, but Americans are consuming these fatty acids at a

487

ratio around 10.87

488

processors from seven regions throughout the U.S. showed that,

489

averaged over a year, organic milk contained 25% fewer ω-6 fatty

490

acids and 62% more ω-3 fatty acids than conventional milk,

491

leading to a favorable ratio of the two (Table 3).87

492

dairy farmers can elevate the levels of CLA in milk and the

493

cheese manufactured from it by supplemeting the diet of their

494

cows, e.g. with sunflower oil.88

495

pasteurization have little effect on CLA concentration.5

ω-3 fatty

ω-6 fatty acids (linoleic, 8,11,14-

A 2013 analysis of milk from 14 commercial

Organic

Homogenization and

496

Our laboratory has completed a 3-yr study of milk from two

497

adjacent farms; one was conventional and the other transitioned

498

to organic during the first year (Tunick et al., submitted).

499

The fatty acid analyses focused on CLA and the most predominant

500

ω-6 and ω-3 fatty acids, linoleic acid and α-linolenic acid,

501

respectively.

502

contained 26% fewer ω-6 fatty acids and 41% more ω-3 fatty acids

503

than conventional milk (Table 4).

In the final year of the study, the organic milk

As in the national study,88


Page 23 of 43


22 504

the CLA content of the organic milk was 18% higher than that of

505

the conventional milk.

506

desirable in the organic milk.

The ω-6 to ω-3 ratio was also more

507 508

FUTURE EFFORTS

509 510

Despite advertising and educational efforts, many consumers are

511

still not fully aware that dairy foods and dairy ingredients are

512

a good source of high quality proteins.6

513

be taught about the benefits of milkfat and of milk in general.

514

These efforts will have to be supported by further research on

515

the mechanisms whereby milk components benefit humans.

516

scientists continue to investigate food as it relates to health,

517

people will realize the importance of dairy products in the

518

diet.

The public should also

519 520

AUTHOR INFORMATION

521 522

Corresponding Author

523

*(M.H.T.) Phone: (215) 233-6454. E-mail:

524

[email protected].

525 526

Notes


As


Page 24 of 43

23 527

The authors declare no competing financial interest.

Mention of

528

trade names or commercial products in this publication is solely

529

for the purpose of providing specific information and does not

530

imply recommendation or endorsement by the U.S. Department of

531

Agriculture. USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.

532 533

REFERENCES

534 535

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536

components, and essential amino acids: mechanisms underlying

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milk and dairy consumption: an overview of evidence from cohort

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studies of vascular diseases, diabetes and cancer. J. Am. Coll.

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Nutr. 2008, 27, 723S-734S.

826 827

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M.; Jain, S.; Menon, S.; Parkash, O.; Marotta, F.; Minelli, E.;

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Henry, C. J. K.; Yadav, H. Milk, milk products, and disease free

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health: an updated overview. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2012,

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Poussa, T.; Näse, L.; Saxelin, M.; Korpela, R. Effect of long

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838

attending day care centres: double blind, randomised trial. Br.

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(73a) Elzoghby, A. O.; Abo El-Fotoh, W. S.; Elgindy, N. A.

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Casein-based formulations as promising controlled release drug

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delivery systems. J. Control. Release 2011, 153, 206-216.

843 844 845

(73b) Livney, Y. D. Milk proteins as vehicles for bioactives. Curr. Opin. Colloid Interface Sci. 2010, 15, 73-83. (74) Haratifar, S.; Meckling, K. A.; Corredig, M.

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Antiproliferative activity of tea catechins associated with

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casein micelles, using HT29 colon cancer cells. J. Dairy Sci.

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2014, 97, 672-678.

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(74a) Pan, K.; Luo, Y.; Gan, Y.; Baek, S. J.; Zhong, Q. pHdriven encapsulation of curcumin in self-assembled casein



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nanoparticles for enhanced dispersibility and bioactivity. Soft

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Matter 2014, 10, 6820-6830.

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(74b) Pan, K.; Chen, H.; Davidson, P. M.; Zhong, Q. Thymol

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nanoencapsulated by sodium caseinate: physical and antilisterial

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properties. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2014, 62, 1649-1657.

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(76) Code of Federal Regulations.

Title 7, Part 205.

National

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Organic Program; http://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-

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idx?c=ecfr&tpl=/ecfrbrowse/Title07/7cfr205_main_02.tpl (Accessed

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Bavinger, J. C.; Pearson, M.; Eschbach, P. J.; Sundaram, V.;

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Liu, H.; Schirmer, P.; Stave, C.; Olkin, I.; Bravata, D. M. Are

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organic foods safer or healthier than conventional alternatives?

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A systematic review. Ann. Intern. Med. 2012, 157, 348-366.

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(79) Coakley, M.; Barrett, E.; Murphy, J. J.; Ross, R. P.; Devery, R.; Stanton, C. Cheese manufacture with milk with


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elevated conjugated linoleic acid levels caused by dietary

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manipulation. J. Dairy Sci. 2007, 90, 2919-2927.



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39

Table 1.

Constituents of milk, Cheddar cheese, and yogurt.2

Milk, 3.25%

Cheddar

Yogurt,

fat, vitamin

cheese

plain

D added

low-fat

Proximates (g/100 g) Protein Lipid Carbohydrate

3.15 3.25 4.80

24.90 33.14 1.28

5.25 1.55 7.04

Minerals (mg/100 g) Calcium Copper Iron Magnesium Manganese Phosphorus Potassium Selenium Sodium Zinc

113 0.025 0.03 10 0.004 84 132 0.0037 43 0.37

721 0.031 0.68 28 0.010 512 98 0.0014 621 3.11

183 0.013 0.08 17 0.004 144 234 0.0031 70 1.51

Vitamins (µg/100 g) A B1 (thiamine) B2 (riboflavin) B3 (niacin) B6 (pyridoxine) B9 (folate) B12 (cobalamin) C D E K1

46 46 169 89 36 5 0.45 0 1.3 70 0.3

265 27 375 80 74 18 0.83 0 0.6 290 2.8

14 44 214 114 49 11 0.56 0.8 0 30 0.2


Page 41 of 43


40

Table 2.

Dietary elements required by humans and commonly found

in dairy products.26

Function

Ca Mg

P

K

Na Mn Cu

Muscular activity, neural transmission, vascular constriction and dilation; maintaining normal acid-base balance, osmotic pressure, and water balance

Forming and maintaining bones

Blood clotting

Energy metabolism

Component of cell membranes, nucleic acids, and nucleotides Components of enzyme systems or cofactors in enzymatic reactions

Zn Se Fe

Defense against oxidative damage Structural role in some proteins Oxygen and electron transport 876



Page 42 of 43

41

Table 3.

Concentrations of selected fatty acids in organic and

conventional milk from national study.87

Fatty acid, abbreviation

Organic

Conventional

milk

milk

(mg/100 g milk) Conjugated linoleic acid, CLA

22.7

19.2

25.5

15.9

Eicosapentaenoic, 20:5

3.3

2.5

Docosapentaenoic, 22:5

4.4

3.7

63.9

85.6

8,11,14-Eicosatrienoic, 20:3

3.2

4.3

Arachidonic, 20:4

4.8

5.8

ω-3 fatty acids α-Linolenic, 18:3

ω-6 fatty acids Linoleic, 18:2 (nonconjugated)

All fatty acids

ω-6/ ω-3 ratio

3108

3098

2.28


5.77

Page 43 of 43


42

Table 4.

Concentrations of selected fatty acids in organic and

conventional milk in study by our laboratory (Tunick et al., submitted).

Fatty acid, abbreviation

Organic

Conventional

milk

milk

(mg/100 g milk) Conjugated linoleic acid, CLA

32.8

27.7

29.7

21.1

ω-3 fatty acid α-Linolenic, 18:3

ω-6 fatty acid Linoleic, 18:2 (nonconjugated)

All fatty acids

ω-6/ ω-3 ratio

101

137

3622

3565

3.40


6.49

Dairy Products and Health: Recent Insights - Journal of Agricultural

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