he cities of East Asia face the same environmental dilemmas faced by cities in the industrial world, but on a far greater scale and intensity. They have many more poor people, both in absolute numbers and in proportion to their total population. Population growth rates of four or more percent and economic growth rates of up to 10% exceed those found in most industrialized countries. The funds, technologies, and experience available to these cities for solving enbackloe of vironmental problems are fewer, and the unfulfilled environmental services is ereater. u To address their environmental problems East Asian cities are drawing on the experiences of cities in the industrialized world-trying to choose the good and avoid the b a d - a n d are reforming policies and managerial practices while increasing environmental protection funding. At present there are some 650 million people living in East Asian cities: by the year 2025 there will be some 1.5 billion, or 63% of the region’s total population ( 1 : see Figure 1).There are six East Asian cities with populations in excess of eight million people and 56 with more than one million (Figure 2). (In the United States, for comparison, there are only two cities of more than eight million people and 30 cities of more than one million). As elsewhere, people in Asia are attracted to cities for economic, education, and health reasons as well as for the quality of life available there. Most of the economic growth in East Asia occurs in or near cities because of the efficiencies found there. Shanghai has 1.2% of China’s population but produces 12.5% of the country’s industrial output: Bangkok, with 11% of Thailand‘s population, accounts for 37% of GDP. The higher productivity is reflected in urban incomes, which are generally 2-3 times those in rural areas. Industries locate near cities because of the better infrasixucture, communications, and an educated, plentiful work force. But industries bring pollution, and growth rates of emissions often exceed the rate of population growth In urban Asia nitrogen oxide emissions, for example, are expected to increase over the next decades by 4.9% annually while the population is expected to grow at 3.3%. The cities also attract the poor, who are fleeing from unproductive rural circumstances in search of better lives. (Some 40-60% of the populations of Jakarta and Manila are poor). The dismal job, housing, and environmental conditions of the poor pose the greatest challenge to development and environment officials in the cities of Asia. On the environmental front, the poorunable to buy their way out-are forced to live in crowded neighborhoods near polluting industries or noisy highways, inhabit flooded lowlands, and endure inadequate water supply and sanitation systems. The incidence of diarrhea in the slums of Manila, for example, is twice that of the rest of the city (2).For developmental, environmental, and equity reasons, the main urban challenge is to improve the conditions of the poor.
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Environmental conditions Cities face severe environmental problems because of their high and concentrated productivity, consumption, and population. Raw industrial materials and foods move into the city, and finished goods, industrial residuals, and human wastes either move out or are assimilated. Thus cities burden not only their own natu2280 Environ. Sci. Technol., Vol. 27. No. 12. 1993
A R T H U R E. B R U E S T L E The World Bank. Washineton, DC 20433 ral resources, but also those of areas that supply the lifesustaining and industrial inputs and receive the wastes. Although the density of human and economic activity concentrates the generation of wastes, it offers opportunities for economies in waste management and in the provision of environmental services. The following section reviews present land, water, and air conditions in East Asian cities, with particular attention to the environmental issues that affect the largest number of people: safe water and adequate sanitation, ambient water quality, air pollution, and land use. The subsequent section describes how cities are responding to the challenge. Water supply and sanitation. The provision of clean water and sanitation is often omitted from the list of priority environmental challenges, hut for many East Asian cities it should rank at or near the top. About 80% of the population has access to safe water, and about 70% to adequate sanitation; therefore some 150 millionurban dwellers are exposed to debilitating waterrelated diseases including diarrhea, typhoid fever, and cholera. The importance of adequate water supply and sanitation is illustrated by diarrheal mortality rates, which are typically 60% lower among children in households with adequate facilities compared with those without (3).In addition to improved health and quality of life, Solid wastes clog dmins, pollute woterin many Asian cities. 1013-936W93/0927-2280$04.00100 1993 American Chemical Society
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good water and sanitation services generate economic benefits by lowering health care costs, reducing work and school absenteeism, and avoiding costs for water haulers and vendors whose average charge for water is 12 times more than the cost of piped-in water. Appropriately targeted, improved water and sanitation services would especially benefit the poor who, lacking political power, often get proportionately less of the publicly provided infrastructure and services. Water pollution. Natural water bodies in and around East Asian cities are in poor condition because of domestic and industrial waste discharges to them. The larger cities have rudimentary sewerage systems at best (some 15% of Manila is sewered, the Jakarta system serves only 1000 high-rise b u i l d i n g s , a n d Bangkok is only now beginning development of a sanitary sewer system.) In Manila and Bangkok most residences and commercial establishments have latrines and septic tanks, but their poor operation often results in untreated wastes being discharged to nearby drains or water courses. Some 6 0 4 0 % of the biological oxygen demand waste load is from domestic sources, but the industrial portion of wastewater, which is growing each year, is more toxic and difficult to treat. Jakarta, Bangkok, and Shanghai rely on heavily polluted nearby rivers and canals as main sources of drinking water, creating severe water treatment problems and high health risks. (Poor surface water quality is forcing Shanghai to relocate its raw water intake 40 km upstream at a cost of $300 million, and in Jakarta investments of up to $1billion are contemplated to reach less polluted sources of supply.) Domestic and industrial wastes have severely contaminated the near-shore ecosystems of most of the coastal cities, adversely affecting the quantity and quality of seafood and reducing tourism income. Groundwater quality is also rapidly deteriorating because of unsatisfactory domestic and solid waste disposal and groundwater overdraft. Bangkok, Manila, and Jakarta are overpumping aquifers, which is causing salt water intrusion and land subsidence and is imposing high costs for alternative water supply and the repair of damaged infrastructure (2). In contrast, Shanghai has successfully brought groundwater use into balance with recharge and has stabilized subsidence.
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1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
2015
2020
2025
r 1960
1970
1980
Source: United Nations. "World Urbanization Prospects 1990,' 1991.
Solid wastes. East Asian cities typically generate 0.5-i.0 kg of domestic solid waste per capita per day, compared to 1.8 kg in the United States (4). Because the numbers increase with population and income, a n d t h e nature of t h e wastes becomes more complex with industrialization, solid waste management poses a growing challenge to municipal officials. Solid waste collection in East Asian cities is generally deficient, and it is not uncommon to find garbage piled and burned in streets or dumped into drainage canals. (In Jakarta and Surabaya some 3040% is either n o t c o l l e c t e d or i s r a n d o m l y dumped after collection, according to a World Bank report due out t h i s year.) The poor, often living in
2282 Envimn. Sci. Technol., VoI. 27, No. 12. 1993
neighborhoods that are inaccessible to collection vehicles, suffer inordinately from inadequate service. Even formal waste disposal facilities are generally unsatisfactory. Most collection systems combine domestic and industrial wastes and dump them in landfills. The landfills are not engineered or operated to control disease vectors or prevent ground and surface water pollution. Air quality. Most East Asian cities have serious air pollution problems, much of it caused by motor vehicles. (In Kuala Lumpur and Manila, 7040% of total emissions are attributable to motor vehicles.) The number of vehicles has doubled every seven years throughout Asia ( I ) . A large proportion of vehicles are old, fuel inefficient, poorly main-
tained, and have two-cycle engines. The use of leaded gasoline and diesel fuel containing sulfur exacerbates the emissions problem, and traffic congestion rivals the worst in the world. Air pollution causes considerable suffering in East Asian urban areas. Lung cancer mortality is four to seven times higher in Chinese cities than in the nation as a whole. In Bangkok suspended particulate matter causes some 1400 deaths per year, and lead pollution raises the incidence of hypertension, heart attack, a n d stroke. Estimates for Bangkok suggest that the average child has lost three to four IQ points by the age of seven because of elevated exposure to lead (3). Land. The spatial patterns of land use affect the cost of providing infrastructure and environmental services and have profound implications for environmental quality. Under ideal circumstances, growing urban populations can be accommodated i n concentrated areas, which minimizes land consumption and efficiently uses utilities and roads. Industries can be located away from homes and in ecologically resilient areas with shared waste management systems. Unfortunately, cities are captives of existing land-use patterns where industrial a n d residential areas are mingled, transport corridors are inadequate and poorly patterned, and park land is scarce. The land problem is well recognized, but few cities have found adequate solutions. Jakarta, seeking to protect its southern aquifer recharge area and to relieve development pressures in the flood-prone north, prepared in the 1980s an east-west structure plan for the placement of major roads and utilities. The effort, only partially successful, was reinforced in 1992 with the passage of a law on spatial planning that provides for the identification and protection of environmentally sensitive areas and the siting of development where environmental impacts can be readily managed. Despite such efforts, generally East Asian cities are continuing to sprawl on to ecologically and agriculturally valuable land, and industries are still locating in sensitive water- and airsheds. Causes of conditions The environmental situation described above has numerous causes. Foremost is that the populations and economic activities of Asian cities simply have grown too fast for
governments to keep up. Underlying factors include the mentality t h a t environmental protection might inhibit economic growth; agencies and policies that work at cross purposes and without a strategy for integrating development and environment; laws and regulations that are outdated or impractical to implement and enforce; and insufficient funds for building and operating an environment-enhancing infrastructure and services. Meeting the challenge Experience shows that economic growth and higher incomes are the keys to improving environmental conditions. Populations with higher incomes have lower birth and disease rates, higher education levels, participate more in the political system, and are better informed on environmental issues. (Government policies and economic plans usually speak about growth, but i n practice may hinder it. Examples are bloated civil service systems, subsidies for financially insolvent state enterprises, and regulations that inhibit trade and enterprise.) The environmental disasters revealed with the collapse of Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union imply that market economies, with appropriate incentives and safeguards, are able to perform better environmentally than economies that rely heavily-on state enterprises and centralized economic planning. Thus there is now greater reliance in Asia and elsewhere on decentralized, market-oriented economic approaches to development generally and-regarding e n v i r o n m e n t a l problems-on using a mix of regulations and economic incentives for pollution control, on recovering infrastructure a n d environmental costs through user charges and “polluter-pays” principles, and on engaging the private sector in the provision of both infrastructure and services. Land use. Improved policies, instruments, and enforcement are needed to influence the spatial dimension of urban growth. The ownership and distribution of land have wealth accumulation and income distribution implications as well as environmental and efficiency effects; hence, efforts at reform are often politicized. Because land tenure systems and land markets vary across countries, the analysis and approach have to be country specific. In the Philippines, for example, more rapid and efficient title
registration under the existing system-combined with urban land reform to allow long-term occupants to acquire land-would encourage occupants to improve their living conditions and engender a cooperative attitude toward environmental management. The same does not necessarily hold for other countries. Indonesia, where there is usually a socially harmonious mix of upper and lower income groups, might well leave the traditional system of user rights intact, thereby avoiding speculation and acquisition by the wealthy and powerful. To complement a social equity approach to ownership, a strategic approach to the macro management of land is essential (Williams, D., personal communication, 1993). First, for the urban region a consensus-derived spatial strategy should be developed that is supported and monitored by public interest and community groups. The strategy would identify and protect ecologically sensitive areas, coordinate infrastructure development in space and time, and influence residential and commercial uses and densities. In addition, the strategy would identify major uses-such as industrial estates, large commercial and housing developments, markets and open spaces-that are capable of being guided and controlled through public regulation, economic incentives, and penalties. Second, the capital budgeting process and funding allocations should be used to induce implementing agencies to comply with strategic plans. Finally, the land information system, including records of land ownership, transactions, and uses, should be improved and linked to the tax system. The above actions are essential for secondary as well as primary cities, for as megacities become larger, more congested, and less efficient, there is a trend toward the rapid growth of secondary cities. Utility management. Improvements to water supply and better management of human and household wastes would greatly improve the health and environmental conditions of many urban people, especially the poor. Water utility performance in some East Asian countries is second to none. The Singapore system, for example, serves 100% of the population with safe and reliable water; water losses (or nonrevenue water) are about 8%, and full costs are recovered. Unfortunately this is not the norm for most cities. Water losses of 50% or more are not
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uncommon. Improving utility performance is a goal of most countries and municipal governments. Steps taken to improve the utilities include deregulation and decentralization. This will give municipal governments and publicly owned utilities greater autonomy in responding to the needs of their constituents and the leeway to innovate through, for example, creative involvement of the private sector. (Johor. Malaysia, for example, has contracted with a private company to build and operate a water source and treatment facility, and has a second contract for the reduction of nonrevenue water.) At the enterprise level, utility managers and staff need to be made more accountable through the use of monitoring indicators that are tied to performance incentives for measures such as expanding service coverage, improving productivity, a n d reducing water losses a n d uncollected bills. Water conservation and demand managementachieved through leakage abatement, water metering, adequate pricing, water-conserving fixtures, industrial process changes, and recycling-are increasingly acknowledged as cost-effective means for augmenting supply and reducing pollution. Given the limited numbers and extent of existing sewerage systems and the high cost of building sewers and wastewater treatment plants ($300-$1000 per household, about the same as in the United States where incomes are up to 10 times higher), many Asian cities are looking at alternative methods for safely managing human wastes. Although conventional sewerage is perhaps necessary-and even affordablefor city centers, intermediate technologies are being developed for surrounding areas. These include a hybrid septic tank-conventional sewerage system that employs the tank on the serviced property to retain and digest solids, and a smaller, flatter gradient, solids-free sewer. Cost savings of 20% are possible for new construction and are higher where septic tanks already exist. For both liquid and solid wastes some cities are turning to collection systems planned and operated by the community: the private sector may participate, sharing roles with the public enterprise which provides the more costly and complex trunk, treatment, and disposal infrastructure. The primary axiom is to manage services at the local level: 22e4
involve the community in planning, operating, and paying for the service: and draw upon the private sector's relative efficiency. Vehicle emissions. A dual strategy is employed to address the problems of motorized transport: reduce emissions per vehicle mile traveled and reduce the total vehicle miles traveled. The first is accomplished by setting and enforcing emissions and maintenance standards and reducing the lead and sulfur content of fuels. The second is done by adopting land-use measures, promoting public transport and carpooling, improving telecommunications and traffic management, and charging for or otherwise restricting road use. Industrial wastes. Action on industrial wastes is particularly difficult in developing countries because of the conflict between encouraging industrialization and imposing costly environmental requirements. Industrial pollution control is not cheap (the U S . EPA estimates that industries must spend about 5% of capital costs on environmental measures), but the long-term costs of inaction-health impacts and loss of critical natural resources-may be higher and in fact imposed upon the public and not the polluter. In this context a primary goal should he to identify and address polluting practices that are causing irreversible ecological and health damage-for example, the contamination of groundwater with persistent toxic substances. Additional measures include waste reduction through recycling and process change: adoption of efficient and clean technologies: and encouragement of good environmental behavior through economic incentives such as water abstraction and waste discharge fees. In China, for example, many cities impose a pollution levy on liquid and gaseous discharges by industry (5). Appropriate solutions Many of the above ideas for addressing environmental problems are drawn from Western economic and environmental literature. In considering application to the Asian urban context, the situational differences must be borne in mind: Asian cities are probably in the first third of their economic growth curve: they have large and rapidly growing populations, of which a big percentage are poor and have different health and disease patterns than are seen in the West: and financial
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resources are scarcer. Asian cities have all the environmental problems of Western cities and more, including inadequate basic services. Therefore the uncritical adoption of Western environmental protection priorities, standards, and methodologies is inappropriate. Both Asian and Western experience indicate that the centralized command-and-control approach for environmental protection should give way to methods that employ economic incentives, market forces, a n d decentralized government, with a growing role for the private sector. Each Asian city must continue to review its unique environmental situation and prioritize its policies, regulations, and investments so that the biggest payoffs may he achieved with the financial resources available. Analytical frameworks for such reviews are available and have been applied in s t u d i e s f o r S h a n g h a i , Manila, Jakarta, and other Asian cities (6). References (11 Towards an Environmental Strategy (21
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for Asia; World Bank Washington. DC. in press. Urban Environmental Quality Management in Asia: An Approach; World Bank: Washington. DC. in press. Development and the Environment: World Development Report World Bank Washington, DC.1992. Pernia, E. M. In Sustainable CitiesUrbanization and the Environment in Internationol Perspective; Stren. R.; White. R.; Whitney. I., Eds.;Westview Press: Boulder. CO. 1991. "China:Revolving Loan Funds for Industrial Pollution Control"; In Injmstructure Notes: World Bank Washington, DC. 1993. Imhoff. A. F. In Bank's World World Bank: Washington. DC. May 1993.
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Arthur Bruestle is
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( I principal envimnmental engineer in the Wafer and Sanitation Division ofthe World Bank. Previously he worked for environmental consultants and the US.Army Corps of Engineers. The bulk of his work has been in developing countries. primarily in Asia. Currently based in Washington. h e has hod assignments in Germany, Thailand. and the Philippines.
