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Chapter 7
Challenges, Barriers, and Achievements in Chemistry Education: The Case of Greece Georgios Tsaparlis* Department of Chemistry, University of Ioannina, GR-451 10 Ioannina, Greece *E-mail:
[email protected].
Chemistry education as an established research field has a relatively short history, starting in the 1970s. It studies the process of learning chemistry content, and so it belongs to the social sciences. Chemistry education research is based on both theory and data, and it produces generalizable and applicable results. The present author started his engagement with chemistry education in the late 1970s, and has followed progress in the field ever since. He has greatly been influenced by J. Dudley Herron’s Piagetian views about the learning of chemistry concepts and Alex H. Johnstone’s three-level structure of the chemistry content and his information processing model of learning. In this chapter, the focus is on a number of the author’s studies and on curriculum and educational material, which relate directly to Greek chemistry education, but also have an international dimension and interest. Challenges and achievements, as well as barriers to the development of Greek chemistry education are reported, plus perspectives for international chemistry education. Short reference is also made to the work of other internationally recognized Greek chemistry educators, who have made and still are making substantial contributions to both Greek and international chemistry education.
© 2018 American Chemical Society Cox and Schatzberg; International Perspectives on Chemistry Education Research and Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.
Introduction: Chemistry Education as a Research Field At the outset, the present author has to confess that since he started his academic career, a dominant influence on his commitment to chemistry education has been his reading of the Journal of Chemical Education. This journal, since its launch in 1924, has established itself as a precious and indispensable tool for chemistry teachers both in the U.S. and worldwide. The journal contains an abundance of articles expressing views, ideas, positions and suggestions about courses, content and teaching practices at all levels of education. These articles provide a rich supporting background for what has relatively recently been termed as pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). More generally, although chemistry education as an activity has existed “in one form or another as long as there has been chemistry (1)”, it is only relatively recently that it has become established as a field of research. Its origins go back only to the 1970s, with the Americans J. Dudley Herron and Dorothy L. Gabel and the British Alex H. Johnstone to be considered as its originators. Herron applied cognitive science, especially Piaget’s theory of intellectual development, to teaching chemistry (2, 3). For Gabel, as the student population becomes more heterogeneous and researchers learn more about how students of diverse backgrounds, learning styles and ability acquire knowledge, the way chemistry content is structured will become increasingly important (4). Finally, according to Johnstone (5), if young students are to catch our enthusiasm about our subject, a harmonization of a logical approach to chemistry with a psychological one will be necessary and this can be provided through educational research. Chemistry education is closely related to chemistry, but as a research field it belongs to the social sciences, studying variables relating to chemistry content or to what the teacher or student does in a learning environment (6). As such, it involves a complex interplay between the process of learning and the content, with the aim to understand and improve chemistry learning. The context of teaching and learning (the learning environment) is a decisive and often impeding factor for the validity and application of the research results to school populations. A report by the American Chemical Society (ACS) in 1994 defined the elements of scholarship in chemistry education: scholarship of teaching (that is, excellence in teaching); scholarship of discovery; scholarship of application. Characteristics of research are that it: is theory based; is data based; produces generalizable and applicable results (7). The “Division of Chemical Education” of the “European Association of Chemical and Molecular Sciences” (EuCheMS) (formerly “Federation of European Chemical Societies”, FECS) also produced a position paper on empirical research into chemical education (8) in 1999. Recently, two ACS books, in the ACS symposia series, dealt with a number of essential and useful aspects of chemistry education research (CER). The first book on the “Nuts and Bolts of Chemistry Education Research (9)” is directed to a diverse audience and provides an overview of the field, discussing how CER questions could be addressed. The second book on “Tools of Chemistry Education Research (10)” is addressed to researchers who wish to learn more about specific techniques of CER, covering a range of areas of research and of qualitative and quantitative methods of research. Finally, there has been a report by the 94 Cox and Schatzberg; International Perspectives on Chemistry Education Research and Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.
US National Research Council on “Discipline-Based Education Research (11)”, which concerns understanding and improving learning in undergraduate science and engineering. Many areas of CER are described, including consideration of CER as a field of inquiry. Today, chemistry education researchers have at their disposal many educational theories, models and tools from the cognitive and the affective domains, such as constructivism (of which, as described by George Bodner, there are many forms (12)), the alternative conceptions framework, scientific literacy, context-based learning, cooperative learning, philosophy and history of chemistry, laboratory work, and the new educational technologies.
International and National Chemistry Education: The Contribution by Greek Scholars The present author started his engagement with chemistry education in the late 1970s, and has followed the subsequent progress of the field since. From young age, I loved teaching, but the turning point, which sparked my interest and eventually attracted me to chemistry education, was reading about Herron’s application of the Piagetian theory to chemical concepts (2, 3). For Herron, concepts such as metal and nonmetal, which have perceptible examples and perceptible attributes, require just concrete operations for their learning; on the other hand, concepts such as chemical element and chemical compound, which have perceptible examples but imperceptible attributes, as well as concepts such as atom and molecule, which have imperceptible examples and imperceptible attributes, will require formal operations, in the Piagetian sense, if they are to be learned. In this and other ways, Piaget’s theory became internal to science education (13). Alex Johnstone was another scholar who exerted a great influence on me, especially during 1990, when I spent a sabbatical semester with him in Glasgow. Johnstone’s famous triangle distinguishing macroscopic, submicroscopic, and symbolic chemistry, and its connection with the multiple representational nature of the subject (14), has had, and continues to have a great influence on chemistry education (15). In addition, his extended work on the effect of working memory and information processing on students’ dealing with science problem solving (16) has affected much of my subsequent work. Throughout my career my aim has been two-fold: on the one hand to promote chemistry education through research, and on the other hand, to make the results of such research discernible in my native country, Greece, and in this way to upgrade Greek chemistry education research and practice, of which I dare say, I have been the founder. Over the years, many other internationally recognized Greek chemistry educators have followed my example, having made, and are still making substantial contributions to our discipline. See Appendix 1 for a short description of the contribution of each of these scholars to international chemistry education. Note that the majority of the people who are listed in Appendix 1 are based in education departments, while those based in chemistry departments were not 95 Cox and Schatzberg; International Perspectives on Chemistry Education Research and Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.
initially appointed in positions of chemistry education (with the only exception of Katerina Salta, who however is a part-time research and teaching associate). This is a consequence of the sad fact that in Greece there are no secondary education departments but only primary and infant education departments. To make matters worse, Greek chemistry departments have, so far, shown little interest in creating positions in chemistry education, assuming that chemistry education is not relevant to the science of chemistry and even that it is not a scientific discipline at all! It is noteworthy and sad that even the Departments of Chemistry of the University of Athens and the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, which have been running the graduate program DiCheNET for many years, have been reluctant, in recent years, to create or to fill staff positions in chemistry education. (For information about DiCheNET, see Appendix 2, along with a discussion of chemistry teachers’ preparation in Greece.) In addition, to their participation in international CER, all the listed Greek scholars have made substantial contributions to the practice of chemistry education in Greece, through their teaching at universities, the writing of books in Greek, and their participation in Greek science and chemistry education conferences and seminars at both primary and secondary levels. In the remainder of this chapter, I will focus on a number of my own studies, and some relevant curriculum and educational material and initiatives (published in Greek) that relate directly to Greek chemistry education, but which, at the same time, have an international dimension and interest. In connection to these challenges and achievements, I will also expose a number of barriers to the development of chemistry education in Greece. Finally, I will discuss some perspectives for international chemistry education.
Chemistry in the Greek Junior High School In most countries, including Greece, junior high school / lower secondary education (‘gymnasion’) involves three grades (7th, 8th, and 9th) – ages 11-14. Chemistry is taught in the 8th and the 9th grades for one 45-minute period per week. My first education research study in 1984 (in Greek) reported a survey of Greek teachers’ perception of the difficulty of the various chemistry topics that were covered at the time (the 1980s). The findings confirmed that the stoichiometry topics and concepts that were included then in the curriculum and textbooks (RAM, RMM, mole, molar volume, balancing chemical equations, and proportional reasoning in stoichiometric calculations) were seen as the most difficult ones. Other difficult topics for the 8th grade included: the periodic table; ionic and covalent bonds; structural and electronic formulas of covalent compounds; single-atom ions; multi-atom ions; ionic and molecular reactions; simple and double substitution reactions. To explain these findings, I invoked Piagetian theory. (Later, when I was equipped with a richer theoretical armament, in addition to Piaget’s ideas, I also employed Ausubel’s theory of meaningful learning, information processing theory, and the alternative ideas framework, to justify students’ conceptual difficulties relating to the structural concepts of matter (17).) Based on the findings, I made proposals in 1984 for a revised Greek 96 Cox and Schatzberg; International Perspectives on Chemistry Education Research and Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.
secondary chemistry curriculum, which placed the emphasis on the macroscopic study of various topics, and maintained the concepts of molecule and atom and of chemical notation, but without including atomic structure and bonding. In addition, I recommended avoiding complicated reactions without actual relevance to everyday life. In 2001, I presented second thoughts of mine about lower secondary chemistry, and distinguished the aims of the course into three classes: (1) aims of theoretical/formal chemistry; (2) aims of practical abilities; (3) aims of chemistry in context. Finally, through a research study, I used a three-cycle method, which went separately over the macroscopic, the symbolic and the submicroscopic levels of chemistry, and concluded that this approach could be considered as a good method for junior high school chemistry (18). In the macro-cycle, students become familiar with chemical substances and their properties. Central here is the use of experiment, while chemical notation as well as atoms and molecules are not included. Applying the spiral curriculum, the symbolic cycle covers the same course material, but adds chemical formulas and equations. Finally, the submicro-cycle brings atoms and molecules into play. Such an approach is in line with Johnstone’s ideas about chemistry learning and chemistry curricula, according to which, “there is plenty of good science to be learned without the ‘interference’ of submicro considerations”, so “curriculum designers and textbook writers should consider the need for a considerable introductory period in which students get familiar with thinking in a scientific way through the use of macro and tangible experiences only, … , dealing with the things of every day experience (19)”. A New Program of Studies and New Textbook Packages (1997-1998) In 1997-98, a new program of studies for Greek lower secondary chemistry was introduced and new textbook packages, that adopted the proposals of educational research, were written. This was pleasing and encouraging. The program retained atoms and molecules, but avoided the details of atomic and molecular structure. Also, a complete removal of stoichiometry was implemented. An integral part of the new program was the execution of a number of experiments by the students, with laboratory manuals included in the book packages. It was apparent that the recommendations of CER had finally begun to take root in the Greek educational system. The Latest Revision of the Formal Curriculum in Greece (2014) – Chemistry for 7th and 8th Grades Recently, I was the coordinator of a committee that worked out a new program of studies for chemistry for the 8th and 9th grades in Greece, within the project “Education and Lifelong Education – New School (21st Century School)”. The aims of the new program are to encourage students to develop a liking for the chemistry course through its many useful applications, and to provide the necessary basic knowledge, which will help them to move on to the more advanced senior high school chemistry course. The main operations and tools were: (i) the re-arrangement of topics and a rational organization of the material; 97 Cox and Schatzberg; International Perspectives on Chemistry Education Research and Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.
(ii) a combination of the change of the program with proper educational material (print and electronic). The methodology combines the macroscopic approach with the submicroscopic and symbolic levels of chemistry, conceptual understanding, inquiry learning, laboratory teaching, and connection with everyday life. See Table 1 for the contents and the organization of this course. A major, continuing problem still exists, in that chemistry has always been allocated much less teaching time than either physics or biology (under half the time allocated to physics)! At the macroscopic level (before introducing atoms and molecules), emphasis is placed on distinguishing between substances and mixtures of substances, the separation of mixtures into their component substances, and the concept of substance (on the basis of fixed physical constants). Following these, we study chemical reactions, first between solid substances (lead nitrate plus potassium iodide) (20), and then the thermal decomposition of solid substances [calcium carbonate, mercury(II) oxide, sugar]. I consider also the use of the mass spectrometer (the ‘chemist’s elemental analyzer’) to be very useful for determining if a given substance is a chemical element or a chemical compound, as proposed by Taber (21). Chemical reactions in aqueous solutions [e.g. lead nitrate (aq) plus potassium iodide (aq)] are studied in the unit “From water to solutions”, while the classic experiment of the electrolysis of water is used to introduce the concept of atom. (In addition, the thermal decomposition of water into its constituent elements is also considered.)
Table 1. Contents and organization of chemistry for the Greek 8th and 9th grades (2014) Chemistry for the 8th grade (One period per week / 26 periods of 45 minutes each) Introduction: Materials and their physical states (2 periods). (1) From soil and subsoil to chemical substances (5 periods). (2) From water to solutions (5 periods). (3) From water to atoms – From the macroworld to the microworld (7 periods). (4) From air to oxygen and to combustions (4 periods). (5) Pollution of the environment and how to deal with it. (3 periods). Chemistry for the 9th grade (One period per week / 26 periods of 45 minutes each) Introduction: Classification of the elements – Periodic table (2 periods). (1) The chemistry of carbon and of life (9 periods). (2) Acids, bases and salts (10 periods). (3) Elements with a special interest for chemistry and for everyday life (5 periods).
Regarding the program for the 9th grade, a main feature is that, in accordance with Johnstone’s practice and arguments, the teaching of organic chemistry precedes that of acid-base chemistry and of the study of some chemical elements and their properties. As a matter of fact, organic chemistry involves only a few elements, and bonding in organic compounds is relatively simple: a carbon atom makes four bonds; a hydrogen atom makes one bond; an oxygen atom makes two bonds; and a nitrogen atom makes three bonds (5, 22). 98 Cox and Schatzberg; International Perspectives on Chemistry Education Research and Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.
Other Attempts at Reform of the Junior High School: An Integrated Science Program for the 7th Grade Reference was made above about the minor role given to chemistry in junior high school, in comparison with physics and biology. As a matter of fact, the ‘rivalry’ among the three science subjects for dominance in secondary education is a serious problem in Greece (23). To overcome this deficiency, but also to align with widely applied international practices, I proposed in the late 1990s an integrated program of physics and chemistry for the 7th grade. A relevant book (in Greek), which includes experiments, theory, simple-knowledge and more demanding (critical-thinking) questions was written (24). In subsequent work, biology lessons were incorporated into each of the ten units of the above book of integrated physics and chemistry. Unfortunately, a recent (2014) proposal of mine to introduce an integrated science course (physics and chemistry, or physics, chemistry and biology) into Greek junior high schools was not accepted. Chemistry Course for the 8th Grade A novel introductory lower-secondary chemistry course (for the 8th grade) that sought to apply the theories of science education to support conceptual/meaningful learning and to develop a teaching methodology that encourages active and inquiry forms of learning was proposed (25). The program is made of six units (matter and soil, water, chemical reactions, air, molecules, atoms) that contain twenty-four lessons. Special emphasis is paid to the meaningful introduction of the concepts of molecule and atom, which is delayed until the last two units of the course (see the relevant lessons in Table 2). A textbook was written and subjected to a preliminary evaluation (25).
Table 2. Contents (lessons) of the units on molecules and atoms for the 8th grade UNIT E. Molecules
UNIT F. Atoms
(17) The concept of molecule in solids and liquids (18) Ever-moving molecules (19) The concept of molecule in gases
(20) The first two laws of chemistry (21) The concept of atom (22) Chemical formulas and the mole concept (23) The concept of chemical equation
Chemistry in the Greek Senior High School As in many countries, senior high school/upper secondary education (‘lykeion’) in Greece involves three grades (10th, 11th, and 12th) – ages 15-18. The 10th grade is an orientation year, with common curriculum for all students, while in the 11th and the 12th grades, in addition to general education subjects, students also follow a specialized stream of study. In the 10th and 11th grades, chemistry is 99 Cox and Schatzberg; International Perspectives on Chemistry Education Research and Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.
taught as an independent subject as part of general education for two 45-minute periods per week , while in the 12th grade it is taught for three periods each week but only as a special subject within one of the three specific streams (the stream of ‘Positive Studies’, empasizing mathematics and science subjects and preparing students for tertiary education courses in science, engineering, health, and agro schools of study) (26). A major problem with senior high school is that, especially during the 11th and 12th grades, the students’ main objective is to prepare for the national matriculation examinations taking place at the end of the 12th grade, and this leads to algorithmic and meaningless teaching and learning, adapted to the standardized examination questions, with emphasis on formalistic content and algorithmic numerical exercises. A lack of confidence in the education being provided in public senior high schools, when compared to the better student preparation being provided in paid-for special private schools (‘frontisteria’), is an unfortunate outcome. Successive governments, over many years, have attempted in vain to rectify this situation. Three of my early studies (published in Greek, one in 1981, and two in 1985) identified Greek students’ strengths and difficulties with chemistry in senior high school, based on the testing of beginning first-year chemistry students. Difficulties were detected with: the naming of compounds and the writing of chemical formulas; ionic and covalent compounds; polar and non-polar compounds; ionic and molecular reactions; oxidation numbers. A particularly interesting misconception was also identified: Le Chatelier’s principle was being applied to reaction rate, when actually it can only be used to predict the direction of a reaction. This misconception was subsequently reported in 1991 and 2010 (27, 28), in the anglophone literature. Erroneous thinking was also used by some students, who appeared to believe that as long as the products of a reaction were legitimate substances, then the resulting reaction was acceptable (it could actually occur), as the following examples demonstrate:
Note that the above equations are balanced correctly. In 1989, I published a book in Greek on “Topics of Physics and Chemistry Teaching in Secondary Education”, with a 2nd edition in 1991, which included the main results of my early research studies about Greek junior and senior high school chemistry. States-of-Matter Approach (SOMA) and Context-Based Approach to Senior High School Chemistry Within a project for revising the upper secondary curricula in Greece in the late 1990s, the present author, as member of a special committee, contributed to a proposal for a chemistry program for all students in the 10th and 11th grades. For 100 Cox and Schatzberg; International Perspectives on Chemistry Education Research and Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.
the 10th grade, chemistry was introduced through the separate study of the three states of matter: the ‘States-Of-Matter Approach’ (SOMA) (29). There are three major units in the program, namely: (A) Air, gases, and the gaseous state; (B) Salt, salts, and the solid state; (C) Water, liquids, and the liquid state. Table 3 shows the contents of each unit. A relevant book was written, which was then submitted to a preliminary evaluation by teachers (30).
Table 3. Contents of SOMA approach for 10th grade chemistry UNIT A: Air, Gases, and the Gaseous State (A6) Ideal gas and its state equation (A7) Hydrocarbons and combustion reactions (A8) Air pollution, greenhouse effect, depletion of ozone layer
(A1) Atmospheric air (A2) Atoms and atomic structure (A3) Molecules and molecular structure (A4) Chemical reactions (A5) Oxygen and inert gases
UNIT B: Salt, Salts, and the Solid State (B3) Molecular solids (B4) Metals (B5) Solid waste and its management
(B1) Salt and the crystal structure (B2) Salts, metal oxides, and metal hydroxides
UNIT C: Water, Liquids, and the Liquid State (C1) Role of liquid state for life (C2) Temperature range for the liquid state (C3) Intermolecular forces (C4) Water and hydrogen bonding (C5) Bromine and mercury: the only liquid elements (C6) Liquid organic compounds
(C7) Solutions, aqueous solutions of ionic compounds, double displacement reactions, molarity (C8) Colligative properties of solutions (C9) Acids and bases – Chemical reactions in aqueous solutions (C10) Drinking water, water quality, water purification, water waste treatment, water pollution, acid rain
For the 11th grade, the program moved into the connection of chemistry with life and its applications. A book was recently written, which covers this course. Based on the available instructional time and on the evaluation of the book by experienced chemistry teachers, I suggested the organization of material into three major units: (A) Chemistry and energy; (B) Organic chemistry; (C) Chemistry and life. Table 4 shows the contents of each unit. (Material on nuclear energy and renewable forms of energy has been omitted in this proposal.) Unfortunately, the curriculum proposed in 1999 was turned down by government administrators, responding to conservative opinions and interests, so chemistry in senior high school continues to this day to follow a more-or-less traditional approach, instead of a modernized approach such as that described above. However, with the passing of time and the influence of international trends, many encouraging improvements are to be found in the textbooks.
101 Cox and Schatzberg; International Perspectives on Chemistry Education Research and Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.
Table 4. Material and its organization of chemistry for the 11th grade UNIT B Organic chemistry
UNIT A Chemistry and Energy (A1) Energy transfer in chemical reactions (A2) Fuels (A3) Electrochemical energy
(B1) Hydrocarbons (B2) Polymers, plastics, and new materials (B3) Alcohols – ethers – aldehydes and ketones – acids and esters
UNIT C Chemistry and life (C1) (Pharmaceutical) Drugs (C2) Foods and nutrition
Relevant Chemistry Education Under relevant chemistry education several connotations come to mind, for instance, (i) the embedding of science into contexts connected to students’ lives, (ii) the meeting of student needs, and (iii) the inclusion of real-life applications for individuals and society (31). Relevant chemistry education is close to so-called “context-based chemistry education”, but is more general (32). Two of my studies, published in Greek, on the connection of the taught chemistry with students’ everyday lives − one on junior (in 1987) and the other (in 1991) on senior Greek high school − revealed very poor knowledge. For instance, 97% of junior students ignored the content of a liquefied-gas bottle, 96% ignored the content of a fire extinguisher, 89% could not explain what a bleaching liquid was, and 81% were unsure of what petrol is. In the case of senior students, 77% ignored the gas or gases contained in a liquefied gas, 64% the content of a fire extinguisher, 60% failed to appreciate that sulfuric acid is the electrolyte in lead batteries, and 57% that benzoic acid is a common food preservative. Chemistry Dimension of the PARSEL Modules The European project PARSEL (“Popularity And Relevance of Science Education for scientific Literacy”), of which I was scientifically responsible for Greece, has produced educational materials aiming to promote scientific literacy and to enhance popularity and relevance of science teaching and learning (33). The materials in the form of modules (e.g. Growing plants: does the soil matter?; Milk: keep refrigerated; Salt: the good, the bad, and the tasty; Should vegetable oil be used as fuel?) cover a range of student levels (7th Grade and upwards) and science subjects, and can be conveniently used for project-type of work by the students.
Looking to the Future Chemistry, as it is currently taught and tested by many if not most teachers, in Greece and beyond, places the emphasis on learning rules and algorithms, which enable conscientious students to respond with success to examination questions, including relatively complicated computational exercises. Examples of such ‘dexterity’ are the placing of electrons in electron shells and subshells or 102 Cox and Schatzberg; International Perspectives on Chemistry Education Research and Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.
in atomic orbitals, the rote learning of oxidation numbers of the elements, the writing of chemical formulas, the balancing of chemical equations, the calculation of heats of reactions, etc. If we turn, however, to consider matters of conceptual understanding, we realize that our students are, as a rule, ignorant and cannot answer questions such as: why chlorine displays so many oxidation numbers, why spontaneous endothermic reactions can occur, and why reactions, in general, lead to equilibrium? For too long, we have continued to present to our students concepts relating to the structure of matter as absolute truths, underpinning the foundations of chemistry. It is surely time for us, to seek rather to guide and help students to link the macroscopic and submicroscopic levels of chemistry through experiments and demonstrations (34). Further, instead of expecting students to accept the teacher’s word, we should look to provide opportunities for students, themselves, to arrive at answers to questions, such as: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
How do we know that molecules and atoms exist? What data forced us to accept that the molecules of several elements are diatomic? How are the chemical formulas for compounds determined? How did we discover the structure of the atom and nucleus? How were the electric charge and the mass of the electron measured? How were the atomic numbers of the elements determined? On what experimental evidence was the placing of electrons in shells and in orbitals based? What is an atomic or a molecular orbital? How do we know that atoms in molecules vibrate, and that molecules in gases and liquids rotate?
Moving further from the above formalistic issues of chemistry, we have also to consider current and future societal, political, health, environmental, economic, and ethical issues, which relate to chemistry and have a great impact on the whole of our planet and its atmosphere. Examples of such issues are the contribution of chemistry and biochemistry to the prevention and the curing of diseases, the control of chemical processes for cost and benefit, and the transport and fate of chemicals into the environment. Chemistry teaching and learning will definitely have a great role to play in our global future.
Post Script: A Personal Retrospective Comment on Relevant Chemistry Education In 1988, influenced greatly by the 1983 contextual approach to chemistry by Sherman and Sherman (35). I gave a presentation to a Greek conference about “chemistry and tomorrow’s citizens”, and “chemistry as a general education subject at the threshold of the 21th century”. The following were the concluding comments to my presentation: 103 Cox and Schatzberg; International Perspectives on Chemistry Education Research and Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.
“We live in a chemical world, … [where] a general public, … adopts an attitude hostile to chemistry, (where) people are scared by the word ‘chemistry’… It is a necessity that this public … considers critically the chemical view of life, (and) the capabilities and the problems of chemistry. [In this way], chemistry will become an interesting, practical, useful subject, in one word, a most urgent subject”.
Appendix 1: Greek Chemistry Educators and Their Contribution to International Chemistry Education NOTICE: This list includes only scholars whose first degree is in chemistry or in chemical engineering, and have an autonomous presence in chemistry education research (CER). In addition to these, many other Greek colleagues (mostly physicists) have produced chemistry-related research work, often in collaboration with chemistry educators from the list below. Note also that only highlights of research are presented here. The interested reader should consult academic sources such as Google Scholar Citations and/or ResearchGate. Hatzinikita, Vassilia (School of Humanities, Hellenic Open University). Her earlier publications dealt with pupils’ understanding and ideas about changes of matter and about combustion. Her latest work focuses on international competitions, such as PISA and the achievement of Greek students in them. In one study, a comparison was carried out of assessment tasks used in the Greek school context with PISA test items, which use graphs and photographs of familiar entities to communicate scientific information in everyday life. Koulaidis, Vasilis (Department of Social and Educational Policy, University of Peloponnese). His early work dealt with philosophy/epistemology of science, and in particular science teachers’ views about scientific knowledge, the nature of the scientific method, the criteria for the demarcation of science from non-science, the nature of change in scientific knowledge, and the status of scientific knowledge. Other work includes studies of pupils’ ideas, such as those involving changes of state and of matter, analysis of textbooks and press articles about science and technology, as well as contextual issues such as the depletion of the ozone layer and the greenhouse effect. Papageorgiou, George (Department of Primary Level Education, Democritus University of Thrace). His research focuses on students’ and teachers’ ideas concerning the particulate nature of matter, with special emphasis paid to understanding the concept of ‘substance’ and its structure, and in particular on the development of ideas about particles by students in primary education. With Philip Johnson, he developed a particle model that could be applied progressively in primary and then in secondary education. Regarding secondary education, his investigations concerned the nature of knowledge (fragmented v. coherent) about the structure of matter and the role of individual differences. Salta, Katerina (Secondary Education and Department of Chemistry, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens). The focal points of her research are: (a) the affective dimensions of chemistry learning; (b) students’ ideas concerning chemistry concepts; (c) strategies used in chemistry problem solving; 104 Cox and Schatzberg; International Perspectives on Chemistry Education Research and Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.
(d) chemical representations in educational resources; (e) systems thinking. She and her colleagues developed instruments to measure chemistry-specific affective traits, including attitudes and motivation. She also developed a set of criteria to evaluate chemical representations in school textbooks. In other studies, she focused on conceptual versus algorithmic problem solving with regard to conservation of matter in chemistry, and on schemes to investigate students’ systems thinking level within organic chemistry. Sigalas, Michael (Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki). In parallel with his research on quantum and computational chemistry, that on chemistry education focuses on the design, development, application and evaluation of educational software for secondary and tertiary education. His team has developed the ‘3DNormalModes’ and ‘3DΜolecularSymmetry’ software for the interactive visualization and three-dimensional perception of vibrational spectra of molecules and molecular symmetry respectively. He has also developed a technology enhanced hybrid course on molecular symmetry, and has investigated students’ ability to transform and translate 2D molecular diagrammatic representations, and their relationship to spatial ability and prior chemistry knowledge. Stamovlasis, Dimitrios (Department of Philosophy and Education, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki). His research focuses on methodological issues underpinning educational investigations. His main interests are in the application of nonlinear methods and complexity theory, which comprise a new emerging research paradigm. The application of catastrophe theory brought into light various aspects of the processes involved in chemistry problem solving and better interpretations of empirical data. He also examined the effects of cognitive variables on conceptual understanding. In addition, he has contributed to the coherent versus fragmented knowledge hypothesis, and has published work on interdisciplinary approaches to teaching chemistry and art. Stavridou, Heleni (retired, Department of Primary Education, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki). Her work concerned the concept of chemical reaction and the problematic distinction by secondary students between physical and chemical phenomena. Other studies dealt with students’ initial conceptions and conceptual development of the chemical substance concept, acid rain and water and air pollution in primary education, as well as the development of a computer learning environment about chemical equilibrium. Stavrou, Dimitris (Department of Primary Education, University of Crete). His chemistry-related work focuses on the educational reconstruction of modern science topics, especially on teaching issues related to nanoscience and nonlinear systems. He has studied senior high school students’ learning processes on nonlinear systems (deterministic chaos, self-organization and fractals), pre-service teachers’ understanding about size dependent properties at the nanoscale, and has developed teaching material on nanoscience and nanotechnology for primary and upper secondary education. Tsaparlis, Georgios (emeritus, Department of Chemistry, University of Ioannina). Two major areas of his research were on students’ conceptual understanding of quantum chemistry and on problem solving in science education (especially about the effect of cognitive factors and the application of 105 Cox and Schatzberg; International Perspectives on Chemistry Education Research and Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.
nonlinear methodologies in the analysis of problem solving data). Other research involved higher-order cognitive skills (HOCS), teaching and learning physical chemistry, chemical concepts, secondary chemistry curricula, and instructional methodologies. He was the organizer of the “5th European Conference on Research in Chemical Education” (ECRICE) (Ioannina, Greece, 1999) and of an international symposium on structural concepts of matter (Athens, Greece, 2010) (36). Finally, he was founding editor (2000-2004) and, from 2005 until 2011, joint editor of the journal Chemistry Education Research and Practice (37). Tzougraki, Chryssa (emeritus, Department of Chemistry, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens). Her work in chemistry education (following and subsequently running in parallel with her research in bioorganic chemistry) focused initially on the development and application of valid and reliable instruments for measuring secondary education students’ attitudes toward chemistry, the correlation of the attitudes with achievement in chemistry, and the conceptual versus algorithmic problem-solving ability. She has also investigated systemic assessment questions for assessing high school students’ meaningful understanding of organic reactions. Other research deals with chemical representations in school textbooks and with the visual/spatial and analytic strategies used by students in organic chemistry.
Appendix 2: Chemistry Teacher Preparation in Greece Despite the fortunate fact that a considerable number of highly qualified general education and subject-specific education staff are available at universities in Greece (for chemistry educators, see Appendix 1), a persisting and most astonishing problem is that, to this day, secondary teachers in Greece do not receive any special training and preparation (including practical training) before becoming teachers. They are merely required to hold a subject specific (language, history, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, geology, etc.) degree. However, since the beginning of the 21st century, teacher candidates in Greece have been required to pass a special state-run written examination/competition, which includes as examined subjects not only disciplinary ones (chemistry, physics, biology, and geology for chemistry graduates), but also two educational subjects: (i) general education and (ii) subject specific education (for chemists: science education in all four science subjects, with greater weight allocated to chemistry education). Unfortunately, very often, candidates have not been taught any education (general or specific) courses during their first degree. Where such courses are available, they are offered only as optional selective courses. Even sadder is the fact that an encouraging development has not so far been implemented: since the late 1990s, successive governments have passed legislation making it compulsory for teacher candidates to have obtained a ‘Certificate of Pedagogic and Education Qualification’ (CPEQ), after taking a course of minimum duration of one-semester, which should be taught and provided by universities within first degree programs. Unfortunately, such courses have failed to materialize, mainly either because of a lack of collaboration by universities (especially by subject specific departments) or by the tendency of 106 Cox and Schatzberg; International Perspectives on Chemistry Education Research and Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.
successive governments and even successive ministers of education to postpone implementation of such CPEQ programs, in order to bring about changes and ‘improvements’ to the programs. The last such legislation was introduced in 2011, was voted for by an overwhelming parliamentary majority, and required prospective teachers who entered universities starting from 2013 onwards, to have obtained the CPEQ before applying for participation in the teacher selection competition. This law has, however, never been applied in practice, with the current Greek government deciding that entering the teaching profession should be a conscious choice that should only be made by individuals after they have obtained their first degrees. It has therefore been decided to suspend the application of the 2011 law in order to introduce a new ‘improved’ CPEQ, which will be run by universities as a postgraduate course. To cut a long story short, it has been fortunate that practicing and prospective chemistry teachers in Greece have had the opportunity to attend the “Chemistry Education and New Educational Technologies” (DiCheNET) graduate program (see below) since the late 1990s. This provides an excellent preparation for prospective chemistry teachers, apart from the fact that it does not include any training for practical work. The DiCheNET Graduate Program The DiCheNET program is an inter-university postgraduate program, which was established by Chryssa Tzougraki (who was director of the program for 14 years), in collaboration with Michael Sigalas, Georgios Tsaparlis, and the late Nicolaos Spyrellis, and which has been running since 1998 in the Departments of Chemistry of the Universities of Athens and Thessaloniki (38). DiCheNET is a two-year program leading to a master’s degree. It involves both taught courses and the carrying out and writing up of a CER project. Training in new educational technologies is a strong feature of the program, along with other courses in general and science/chemistry education; in addition the applications of chemistry in industry and society were strongly emphasized. Some 250 people have completed this course to date, and through their studies have become highly qualified practicing or prospective secondary chemistry teachers, able to contribute to the application of new educational methodologies in chemistry teaching in Greece. Some of them have gone on to complete a doctor of philosophy degree in chemistry education at one of the collaborating chemistry departments, and even to continue as education researchers.
Acknowledgments The author wishes to thank the Greek chemistry educators who supplied him with information about their contribution to international chemistry education research, on which the content of Appendix 1 is based. He is also grateful to Dr Bill Byers who read the manuscript and made suggestions for a better presentation. 107 Cox and Schatzberg; International Perspectives on Chemistry Education Research and Practice ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.
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37. The journal Chemistry Education Research and Practice, which is a free to access electronic journal, started its publication from the University of Ioannina in 2000, following the 5th ECRICE conference: http://www.uoi.gr/ cerp (accessed Feb 2018). Since 2005 it has been published by the Royal Society of Chemistry: http://www.rsc.org/journals-books-databases/aboutjournals/chemistry-education-research-practice. 38. Tzougraki, C.; Sigalas, M. P.; Tsaparlis, G.; Spyrellis, N. Chem. Educ. Res. Pract. 2000, 1, 405–410.
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