Indexes, Happy and Unhappy Hunting Grounds JULIAN F. SMITH
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Office of Naval Research, Washington, D. C.
Indexers devote thought and toil to the effort to place subject matter where searchers are most likely to look for it. They must avoid the pitfaHs of omitting significant information, burying information under obscure listings, and making poor choice of nomenclature. The searcher must bear in mind connections between English and Latin derivations, reason out probable preferred locations for entries not as precise as chemical names, check specific as well as general terms, and take into consideration pe culiarities that creep into the English language from for eign language sources. Successful searching demands a balanced blend of training, experience, and common sense.
Indexers devote much thought and toil to the task of placing subject matter where searchers are most likely to seek it. I n a sense, each indexer projects his mind into the future, hoping that searchers will project their minds back to meet his. Often, but not always, they do. The whole operation is essentially a guessing game of indexers and searchers, play ing on the same team against the invisible gremlins of error, mischance, mishap, and false trails. The minds win when the searcher arrives at the wanted information. Suppose the indexer is directing the searcher to a new, precise determination of "Stannous chloride solutions, density." H e makes that entry and moves on to the next item. The gremlins win if the searcher gives up when he finds nothing under " T i n chlo ride solutions, density." There are many ways i n which indexers and searchers can make success easier and surer than it would be without their skill and care. Assuming that the indexer has avoided the pitfalls of omitting significant information, of burying i t under his own obscure fan tasies, and of errors or poor choices i n nomenclature, what must the searcher do to make sure that his mind meets the indexeras? First, he can bear i n mind such little matters as the connection between " t i n " and " s t a n n - , " " i r o n " and "ferr-," " l e a d " and " p l u m b - . " Secondly, he can reason out probable preferred locations for entries not as precise as chemical names. H e can remember that "Glazes" and "Enamels, vitreous" are suf ficiently similar to justify searching both when interested i n either, whereas organic baking finishes such as "Enamels, tung o i l " may hide under some such congener as "Paints, tung o i l , " but not under "Glazes." Thirdly, he can cultivate mental agility whsn his first thought misses the indexeras in such matters as designating properties or products. H e can search "Bactericides" as well as "Germicides," and he can switch from specific to general terms, or vice versa. If "Luminescence" does not serve, he can proceed to its special cases such as "Chemiluminescence," "Fluorescence," "Iridescence," or "Phosphorescence." 19
SEARCHING THE CHEMICAL LITERATURE Advances in Chemistry; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1961.
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ADVANCES IN CHEMISTRY SERIES
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Finally, he can allow for peculiarities which creep into English language indexes from foreign language sources. Biochemists should know that the German trick of calling enzymes "ferments" persists i n our literature and indexes. Still worse is Ver selfung, ap plied i n German to a l l hydrolysis, so that "Saponification" for " H y d r o l y s i s " seems i m possible to eradicate from our literature and indexes. These are merely examples to illustrate how the searcher can do his share toward the meeting of the minds. Engineers tunneling from opposite sides of a mountain or stream are expected to meet without deviating so much as an inch; but their success does not come b y haphazard drilling. So the searcher, starting from his end, cannot expect to meet the indexer's mind without skilled attention to orientation.
Chemical Indexing as It Was E a r l y chemical indexes were sorry specimens as compared with today's best. The preface to the cumulative index of Volumes 1 to 100 (1832-56) of Liebig's Annalen der Chemie complained that the first two cumulative indexes (for Volumes 1 to 40, 1842, and Volumes 41 to 70, 1851) were appallingly bad. A few simple rules for better chemical i n dexing were prescribed and followed. The Annalen's first indexers should not be blamed too much; they were amateurs, without experience or precedent, and the small bulk of literature to be covered did not need an elaborate index. Chemists of 1832 could probably read that year's whole output of chemical literature i n less time than we would need now to read one annual index of Chemical Abstracts. The Annalen for 1832 (Volumes 1 to 4) was indexed in less than 800 subject headings. The leisurely pioneers used long phrases instead of one or a few words as main entries. E a r l y searchers accepted "Nitro-bromo-phenesic and ampelic acids, on chlorophenyle, and chloralbine and on the relations which exist between the composition of some organic sub stances and their crystalline forms" [Chemist (London), V o l . 1 (1841)] whereas modern searchers would resent anything longer than "Nitrobromophenesic acid, crystalline form," and would demand separate entries for the other compounds. E v e n after more and shorter entries won favor, subject indexes remained scanty as judged b y modern standards. Cross references were rare and sometimes loosely used, as i n Chemist (Lon don), V o l . 1 (1841), " M e t a l l i c salts," see " R e m a r k s . " Indexers seemed to assume that searchers had minds grooved exactly like their own. E a r l y chemical indexing did not approach the 67 words of index per 100 words of text which is approximately the present level for Chemical Abstracts. B u t gradually i n dexers sensed more of the searcher's needs; as chemical literature grew i n bulk and com plexity, subject indexes made halting but persistent efforts to keep pace. One of the early concessions, dating back at least to 1801 (3) was the publication of cumulative indexes (8), covering 5 to 100 volumes or years of a periodical. This time-saving practice spread widely later i n the 19th century. The growth of chemical literature also drove indexers beyond the word base to for mula and number bases for indexing. When empirical formulas were recognized as i n herent characteristics of chemical compounds, inevitably some restless spirit would think of indexing compounds b y formulas. The restless spirit was that of M a x M o r i t z Richter; he brought out his first formula index of a l l known organic compounds i n 1884. Isomers complicate the situation; but Richter devised a way of coping with them which still serves i n today's formula indexes. Patent grants were burgeoning late i n the 19th century, with an added impetus from the German chemical industry's complex marvels of coal tar chemistry. Pressure on patent indexing finally led abstract periodicals to publish numerical indexes of patents. Wagners Jahresbericht der chemischen Technologie started the custom i n 1889, followed b y Zeitschriftfur angewandte Chemie i n 1890 and Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry i n 1901. Thus, at the turn of the century, chemical indexing was established on its four main bases : SEARCHING THE CHEMICAL LITERATURE Advances in Chemistry; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1961.
SMITH—INDEXES, HAPPY AND UNHAPPY HUNTING
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GROUNDS
Names (of authors, firms, agencies, laboratories, patentees, assignees, etc.) Words (subjects) Formulas (empirical and ring formulas of compounds, organic and inorganic) Numbers (chiefly of patents)
Chemical Indexing as It Is As the number of known chemical compounds neared the million mark, literature about them and less definite substances or products became increasingly difficult to index. Chemical Abstracts and Chemisches Zentralblatt responded with improvements i n entry selection and arrangement, and explained their improvements to searchers (5, 6). The German science press of the early 1930's warmly praised the Zentralblatt s new "encyclo pedic" system, which departs further from the strict alphabetic base than does Chemical Abstracts. Book indexing is still i n a very spotty state, but has improved somewhat under pres sure. A compendium such as Beilstein (4) is well indexed i n relatively small space because its arrangement has self-indexing features. Unfortunately, the arrangement is covered b y such elaborate rules that an official guide (11) is needed. There are also shorter guides (9,12). Friedlânder (7) was for many years a monumental example of inadequate index ing, falling far short of the needed detail. The numerous handbooks for chemists and engineers illustrate the spotty character of modern book indexing. I n general, the chemi cal handbooks fare better than those i n engineering. I n some respects chemical subject matter is more amenable to precise indexing than are engineering topics; but there is a hard core of fact i n the fable that engineers cannot read, and it influences indexing. Searchers who are sensitive to the idiosyncracies of indexers can quickly sense good ness or badness i n an index. The needed sensitivity can be acquired if not inherited. Either way, the searcher can train himself to step up his ingenuity voltage when confronted with a bad index. T o illustrate, a certain index (anonymous here) has many entries under "Acoustics" and "Physics, sound" along with a few under "Supersonics," but not even a cross reference under " S o u n d " or "Sonic(s)." Searchers detoured at " S o u n d " pass to "Acoustics" with out much resistance, but the jump from " S o u n d " to "Physics, sound" is more difficult. Skilled searchers start with a list of the significant words relating to any topic complex enough to have a vocabulary. Probably on the old Indian's theory, " N o settum trap, no catchum m i n k , " they are called catch words. Because usage varies with place and time, catch words differ i n different indexes and i n different periods of any serial index. This adds a challenging risk of oversight. Suppose the topic is soils, and the obvious words such as " a l l u v i u m , " " c l a y , " "humus," " m u l c h , " "peat," " s i l t , " " t u r f , " etc., are a l l listed. B u t i n recent literature the word "permafrost" demands attention. So a new catch word must be entered. Success i n searching depends much on a sensitive alertness to the words used b y indexers. Numerous published current indexes serve the dual purpose of informing subscribers concerning current developments, and aiding searchers i n tracking down past records. Generally these indexes offer cumulations at suitable intervals ranging up to five years. They use ingenious tricks of typography and arrangement to aid searchers. Some of the notable examples serve the interests of medicine (2), industry (10), and agriculture (1). Formula indexes remain basically the same, except that the increasing number of known compounds gives them greater utility. Their drawbacks, notably the inability to dis tinguish between isomers, have caused discontent and drastic action. Codes which can be written on one line, without any structural ambiguity, are now serving recorders and searchers of chemical information, with promise of broadening utility i n the future. Such codes, notably that of Dyson, have received attention i n previous programs of the D i vision of Chemical Literature.
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Subject Heading Lists Chemical formula codes, like empirical formula indexes, depart from the alphabetic base. Another type of special indexing aid which remains on the alphabetic base is found SEARCHING THE CHEMICAL LITERATURE Advances in Chemistry; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1961.
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in subject heading lists. A few enthusiasts see a master subject heading list as the pana cea for every ill our documentation flesh is heir to. Their opposites, also few i n number, see a l l woe and no weal. Proponents see the advantages of accepted standard designations, and of agreeing on one correct term for a given item to the exclusion of other terms even if equally correct. Claiming ample flexibility through skilled use of cross references, they are prone to over look the irresistible force by which subject heading lists attract the formalists and ritual ists. I n fact, many of the proponents are the formalists and ritualists of documentation. The deadening chill of formalism is as fatal to good indexing of facts as it is to wor ship. The letter kills; the spirit gives life. Dynamic subject heading lists are compiled, maintained, and administered with informed skill and care as potent instruments for better indexing and potent aids to skilled searchers. Static subject heading lists, compiled and administered under slavish adherence to a frozen set of rules, are road blocks. A n apple of discord among the formalists is the inverted heading. One camp will fight for "Acids, f a t t y , " "Esters, keto-," and "Gas, natural." The opposite camp will do battle to the last man for " F a t t y acids," " K e t o esters," and " N a t u r a l gas." Ridicule is a favorite weapon, for it is not hard to trap either form i n a reductio ad absurdum such as "Halogenated unsaturated fatty acid amides," or "Unsaturated fatty acid amides halogenated," or " F a t t y acid amides halogenated unsaturated," or " A c i d amides halo genated unsaturated f a t t y , " or "Amides halogenated unsaturated fatty a c i d . " While battle rages, the emancipated makers and users of dynamic subject heading lists concen trate on grappling with problems instead of with each other. When inversion is indicated, they invert; then, if it becomes contraindicated, they restore the pristine order. Searchers tend to prefer accepting (and perhaps criticizing) the indexing tools pre pared for them, not joining the battle. B u t frequently they preserve neutrality at the ex pense of insight into the mental processes of indexers. This insight is important to a high percentage of successes i n the meeting of the minds.
Subject Classifications Coded classifications of chemical subjects are indexes on a number or number-andletter or punch-position base, designed for detailed subject searching. W i t h i n their limits of scope and coverage they can be used for that purpose, unlike book-shelving classifica tions such as those of M e l v i l Dewey and the Library of Congress. The Universal Decimal Classification ( U D C ) is an effort to ride both horses at once. It succeeds within a fixed path directed from Brussels, but not i n the struggle to serve academic, industrial, and military needs for bibliographic control. Though the decimal classification has shifted from positioning books to positioning index cards, it is still a position-designating system with only limited applicability to the infinitely variable de mands of subject searching.
Advice to Searchers Searchers need not become expert indexers of chemical literature, but the better they understand indexers' problems and answers, the shorter the path to information needed from an index. Through all the maze of word, formula, number, and punch-position lanes for placing and retrieving information, the searcher must choose his starting point and his path. If he chooses wisely i n a well-indexed area, his search turns up a l l pertinent information entered i n the system. If he knows how well the system covers the field, he has a fair estimate of how near his search comes to totality. The searcher must have a mind of his own, and use i t . E v e r y system has some advo cates who can see merit in other systems, and shortcomings i n their own. B u t others, if he lets down his guard, will persuade h i m t h a t : Alphabetic sequence is his sole need. The alphabet is a worse-than-useless mess. A decimal (or other) classification answers all his prayers. SEARCHING THE CHEMICAL LITERATURE Advances in Chemistry; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1961.
SMITH—INDEXES, HAPPY AND UNHAPPY HUNTING
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Punched cards will exorcise every problem. Selectors needing no cards will solve his problems for him. Successful searching demands a balanced blend of training, experience, and the faculty known as horse sense. Training drills the candidate i n theory and practice. K n o w i n g that coverage is never perfect, he learns to estimate its thoroughness for each source. He is taught tricks of the trade for tracing the indexera line of thought, and acquires extensive knowledge of index bases and source materials. H e learns how to adapt them to requirements, and to i n terpret findings according to the interests prompting the search. Experience teaches him more tricks of the trade, broadens his knowledge of sources, sharpens his detective faculties, and increases his skill i n applying the theories and principles learned in training. Finally, any searcher tempted by easy searching paths, against the promptings of com mon sense, should ponder the consequences. Wasted effort, delays, missing of existing i n formation, and high costs for small results are among the penalties for violating these rules : Start with exact definitions of coverage in time, subject matter, and sources. Find out where prior searchers stopped (on all three counts), and start there. Slant the whole job to the basic purpose (background, critical review, reading list, anticipa tion, interference, infringement, state of the art, etc.). Reserve bulldog tenacity for "must" assignments; on all ordinary jobs abandon any line of inquiry when yield value drops below operating cost, and close the project when the results are reasonably adequate. Searchers who team training and experience with applied sense will produce effective results efficiently; no reasonable employer will ask more.
Literature Cited (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)
Agricultural Index, New York, H. W. Wilson Co., 1916-. Am. Med. Assoc., "Quarterly Cumulative Index Medicus" (various titles and sponsors), 1879-. Ann. Chimie, general index to Vols. 1-30 (1801). "Beilsteins Handbuch der organischen Chemie," 4th ed. and supplements, Berlin, Julius Springer, 1918-. Chem. Abstracts, "Naming and Indexing of Chemical Compounds by Chemical Abstracts," Chem. Abstracts, 39, 5867-975 (1945); also issued as a separate. Chem. Zentr., 96, II, 2581-91 (1925); Generalregister VII, Part 4A, iii-iv (1932). Friedländer, "Fortschritte der Teerfarbenfabrikation," Vols. 1-, 1877-. Haskell, D. C., "Check List of Cumulative Indexes of Individual Periodicals in the New York Public Library," 1942. Huntress, Ε. H., "Brief Introduction to the Use of Beilsteins Handbuch der organischen Chemie," 2nd ed., New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1938. Industrial Arts Index, New York, H. W. Wilson Co., 1913-. Prager, Bernhard, Stern, Dora, and Ilberg, Konrad, "System der organischen Verbindungen, Leitfaden für die Benutzung von Beilsteins Handbuch der organischen Chemie," Berlin, Julius Springer, 1929. Richter, Friedrich, and Ilberg, Konrad, "Kurze Anleitung zur Orientierung in Beilsteins Handbuch der organischen Chemie," Berlin, Julius Springer, 1936.
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