October 1953
INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
(3G) Bishop, P. H. H., Gordon, J. E., and McMullen, P. L., paper
presented before the British Plastics Convention, Olympia, Eng., June 8-18, 1953. (4G) Brown, L. H., U. S. Patent 2,601,497 (June 24, 1952). (5G) Dunlop, A. P., and Peters, F. N., “The Furan8,” New York, Reinhold Publishing Corp., 1953. (6G) Dunlop, A. P., and Stout, P. R., Brit. Patent 682,66 (Nov. 12,
1952). (7G) Dunlop, A. P., and Stout, P. R., U. 8. Patent 2,570,027 (Oct. 2, 1951). (8G) Ibid., 2,589,683 (March 18, 1952). (QG) Earp, F. K., Shapiro, F., and Wiggs, A. E., Chem. & Process Eng., 34,137 (1953); Chemistry &Industry, 1953,499. (10G)Hauck, K. H., Rev. gen. mat. plastiques, 27, 14 (1951). (11G) Hillyer, J. C., U. S. Patent 2,607,758 (Aug. 19, 1952). (12G) Himsworth, F. R., and Hughes, H., Ibid., 2,592,034 (April 8, 1952). (13G) Newman, F. E., Ibid., 2,594,061 (April 22, 1952). (14G) Nielsen, E. R., SPE Journal, 9,lO (February 1953). . (15G) Pennsylvania Salt Co., French Patents 970,944-8 (Jan. 10, 1951). (16G) Powers, P. O., IND. ENG.CHEM.,45, 1063 (1953). (17G) Reineck, E. A., Modern Plastics, 30, 127 (October 1952). (18G) Simmons, J. K., U. 5.Patent 2,595,492 (May 6, 1952). (19G) Sweeney, 0. R., Arnold, L. K., and Long, J. T., IND.ENQ. CHEM.,44,1582 (1952). (20G) Thomas, B., U.S. Patent 2,571,994 (Oct. 23,1951). (21G) Walton, R. K., Ibid.,2,585,196 (Feb. 12, 1952).
P
Miscellaneous (1H) Bukzin, E. A., Rubber Age, 67,681 (1950). (2H) Chem. Eng., 59,184A (March 1952). (3H) Chvalkovsky, V., Chem. Prhmysl, 1 (26), 189 (1951).
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(4H) Eifflaender, K., Chem.-Ing.-Tech,, 24,555 (1952). (5H) Eney, W. J., Seymour, R. B., and Pascoe, W. R., Eng. N e w Record, 149,38 (Oct. 16, 1952). (6H) Foulks, W. S., U.S. Patent 2,584,264 (Feb. 5, 1952). (7H) Griffiths, L. H., Plastics Inst. (London) Trans., 20, No. 42, 43 (1952). (8H) Lurie, Robert, Materials & Methods, 36, No. 1, 79 (1953). (9H) Masters, F. M., Concrete, 60,30 (November 1952). (10H) Materials &Methods, 35, No. 6, 117 (1952). (11H) Mitchell, A., Rubber Age, 71,67 (1952). (12H) Modern Plastics. 30, 96, (October 1952). (13H) Ogier, G., Ital. Patent 467,020 (Nov. 24, 1951). (14H) Panek, J. R., Jorczak, J. S., and Colon, H., paper presented before the Division of Paint, Plastics, and Printing Ink, at the 123rd Meeting of the AM~RICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY, LOE
Angeles, Calif.
(15H) Rand, W. M., Materials & Methods, 36, 78 (1953), (16H) Reichherzer, R., Mitt chem. Forsch.-Inst. Ind. dsterr, 5, 108 (1951). (17H) Seymour, R. B., Chemistry & Industry, 1953, No. 14,324. (18H) Seymour, R. B., Food Eng., 24,73 (September 1952). (IQH) Seymour, R. B., and Deakin, D. F., Public Works, 27, 60 (July 1952). (20H) Seymour, R. B., and Steiner, R. H., Chem. Eng. Progr., 49, 276 (May 1953). (21H) Seymour, R. B., and Walker, W. B., U. S. Patent 2,622,908 (Dec. 23, 1952). (22H) Shankweiler, F. K., Bruxelles, G. N., and Whitney, R. E., Corrosion, 8, 130 (1952). (23H) Soci6ttb Nobel frangaise, U. S. Patent 2,572,407 (Oat. 23, 1951). (24H) Starr, J., Materials & Methods, 35,105 (May 1952). (25H) Thompson, A. F., U. S. Patent2,610,910 (Sept. 16,1952). (26H) Waeser, B., Gummi u. Asbest., 4,406 (1951).
Stainless Steels and Other Ferrous Alloys WALTER A. LUCE The Duriron Co., Inc., Dayton, Ohio The literature continues to emphasize conservation methods for critical elements. Although strict allocation of molybdenum and niobium has been eased, nickel still remains in the controlled category. The substitution of manganese for nickel in austenitic stainless steels became a reality on a commercial basis. Genera1 data on corrosion resistance, high temperature properties, physical and mechanical characteristics. and atmlications were Drovided. Techniuues for fabricating stainless steels by welding methods were included. &
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ATERIAL shortages of the basic elements needed in stainless steel production again were of paramount importance since they governed much of the research and development in the stainless field. Numerous papers were published dealing with means for conserving those critical elements necessary to our national security. From all indications the shortage of nickel is still acute. Molybdenum appears to have become less critical since its allocation was lifted early in July. Niobium (columbium) waa also removed from the list of allocated elements but continues to be in short supply since it can be used only for defense purposes. This may still cause difficulty since the unofficial feeling is that titanium is not the effective substitute for niobium that many had hoped i t would be. Unpublished data show that for one thing, it cannot be used as a substitute for niobium in the cast alloys. In his review of alternative materials for certain critical alloys, Udy (984) concurs that there has been only limited success with titanium and tantalum-niobium as substitutes for niobium and comments that the extra-low carbon grades are the more logical aub-
stitutes. The higher cost of these ELC grades is their one drawback. Emphasis is still being given to conservation measures, with nickel still being the primary‘ objective because of its volume usage. A new austenitic stainless steel was described b y both Hatschek (118) and Gray (104). This alloy containing approximately 15% Cr, 16.5% Mn, 1% Ni, and 0.10%C (designated as TRC) fabricates much the same as Type 301 s t a b less steel and provides increased corrosion resistance over the straight chromium stainless steels. For instance, the alloy haa proved adaptable to rail cars and highway trailers where Type 430 stainless was generally unsuitable. Tests are now under way t~ obtain much needed long exposure data. Udy (88.4)points out that the replacement of nickel with manganese is a logical step but cautions that extensive use of manganese could also result in a serious shortage of that element. Information on nickel-free stainless steels reached a peak during the past year, and this should serve to encourage the use of these alloys by providing helpful data on their mechanical prop erties, corrosion resistance, and typical uses. Parina (M4) organined a symposium on the substitution of the straight chromium stainless steels for the chromium-nickel types. Twentynine participants provided comments critically evaluating auah important phases as availability in wrought and cast forms, fabd-
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INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Vol. 45, No. 10
as an alternate method for the nitric acid test in ASTM Spccification A 262-52T. Various other descriptioris of intergranular corrosion were *given in the c iiterature. ~ h i r l ~arid y Truman ( 2 ; ~ ) described the influence of carbon COI!tent on the acid resistance of titaniumCOURTESY ARMCO STEEL CORP. and niobium-stabilized 18 Cr, 8-14 Ni Figure 1. Draw Sequence Used on Sink Strainer i n Type 430 Stainless Steel steels. These stainless alloys, containOne less step is used w i t h Type 302, and extra polishing operations are required ing between 0.03 and 0.16Y0 carbon, were tested in various corrodants to determine the effects of acids other than nitric on intercation techniques, mechanical properties, and applications and granular susceptibility especially at the high carbon levels. The uses in chemical, aircraft, and other industries. Lanphier (166) authors' results, including typical photomicrographs, show that provided a comprehensive survey of the properties of the various boiling nitric acid is much more potent than such other acids stainless steels, and the ferritic grades were an important part of as acetic, hydrochloric, and sulfuric. Hermelin (116) provided the article. Factors affecting the proper selection of a stainless a general discussion on intergranular corrosion of austenitic alloy and typical uses of these various alloys were included. stainless steels and outlined means for decreasing the susceptiTerry (277) discussed the use of the nickel-free stainless steels and included information on the use of the ELC grades as subbility to this type of attack. A comparison was made of the stitutes for those stabilized with niobium. Figure 1 illustrates various test methods in existence for detecting susceptibility to the draw sequence used with Type 430 stainless steel in making a intergranular attack with emphasis on applications where welding is involved. The special type of intergranular corrosion termed sink strainer. Three other excellent articles by Lincoln and Pruger ( I @ ) , Paret (200), and Spencer (254)provided specific in"knife-line" corrosion was described by Fontana (88). This parformation on Type 430 stainless steel, and these should help to ticular article dealt primarily with niobium-stabilized materials and showed that the Type 347LC is almost immune to knifeincrease the interest and use of this composition. The successful line attack after severe treatment in the sensitization zone application of these straight chromium alloys indicates that much unwarranted overspecification of the chromium-nickel grades ex(roughly 800" to 1500"F.), For all practical purposes it waa described as completely resistant. Other alloys of the stabilized isted in the past. Bedford (18) and Close ( 4 9 ) called attention to the precipitaand extra-low carbon types were investigated along with Type tion hardening stainless steels for applications where high strength 347LC. An earlier article on this same subject was reviewed by Heger (115) who emphasized that susceptibility to knife-line is desired. Udy (184)suggests their use where other more criticorrosion occurs in Type 347 stainless steel only when low stresscal alloys, that can be hardened only by cold work, were formerly relieving temperatures are applied. I n reply Holtzworth et al. applied. Schor (2%) described research work by the Alloy (121) presented additional data on the influence of stress relieving Casting Institute to conserve nickel b y employing alloys with temperature on the susceptibility to knife-line attack. They lower percentages of critical elements particularly for service a t concluded that when stress relief of fabricated parts is needed, the 900' to 1400' F. Knapp and Bolkcom (161) described the contemperature should be at least 1500' F., and preferably 1650' F., tinued work with rare earth additions to stainless steels to imto guarantee precipitation of niobium carbides and thus effecprove their properties. This technique is an important aspect in tively overcome intergranular tendencies. conservation since the improved properties of these high alloy A practical case history involving intergranular corrosion of stainless steels could conceivably allow substantial cutbacks in stainless steel heater tubes was described by Works (301). The critical elements. Work on the conservntion of materials by imservice involved the heating of phenol in a solvent treatment proved melting techniques also continues. McFarlane (168) deplant where Type 316 stainless steel tubes failed by interscribed means for obtaining chromium by utilizing scrap and granular attack after 80,000 hours a t 750" F. Gas from sulfurother less deeirable sources. bearing fuels was handled on the outside of the tubes and phenol plus naphthenic acid on the inside. Precipitated carbides in the CORROSION unfailed tubes were agglomerated by heating a t 160OO F. for 24 hours and upon being insertcd in critical areas in the heater, good Corrosion and the various factors influencing the corrosion reservice was again obtained. This illustrates thc practicability of sistance of the stainless steels were once again emphasized in the agglomerating techniques for specific jobs. literature. Although the majority of information concerned the I n a study of the fundamental causes for the corrosion resisting resistance of the stainless alloys to general corrosives, sufficient qualities of stainless steels Berwick and Evans (82) considered information was included on the various forms of corrosion to such important criteria as the influence of anodic and cathodic make this an important part of the literature review. These intreatment, the effect of aerated and deaerated acid, the effect of clude intergranular corrosion, passivation, inhibition, and galalternate exposure of environment to oxygen and inert gas, and vanic corrosion. finally the effect of connecting the material to an aerated cathode. A novel means for detecting susceptibility of austenitic stainIt was found that the presence of oxygen is extremely important less steels to intergranular attack was described by Streicher to the resistance of stainless steels and the substitution of another (W0). This method involves exposing a sample to an electrogas will activate the alloy and cause it to corrode. As would be lytic etchof oxalic acidfor approximatelyone and one-half minutes; expected, connection to a carbon electrode accelerates attack in after viewing the resultant piece under magnification, the tendsulfuric acid. Pourbaix and Van Rysselberghe (114)studied the ency for the alloy to corrode intergranularly can be estimated. passivating characteristics of the 18-8 stainless steels in such This test procedure can be used to screen samples from the boiling bnvironments as acetic acid and acetyl chloride. Uhlig and Wood&5yonitric acid solution and only in those cases where a sample side (285)reported data on the passivation of straight chromium appears to be susceptible to intergranular attack is the 240-hour, stainless steels in a 3y0sodium sulfate solution. nitric acid test necessary to confirm the tendency. Figure 2 Studies on other factors which affect the corrosion resistance of illustrates the difference between a sample in the properly heat stainless steels were also considered. Tice (280)reported on the treated condition (step structure) and one susceptible to intereffect of aeration, velocity of flow, and temperature on the corgranular attack (ditch structure). This test is being considered
October 1953
INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
A
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B
\
S T E P STRUCTURE
CROSS
-
DITCH STRUCTURE SECTION C COURTESY OF
e.
1. DU PONT DE N E M O U R ~L
co.. IW,
Figure 2. Electrolytic E t c h (500 X) i n 10% Oxalic Acid, 1.5 Min. at 1 A m p . per Sq. Cm. A
3 C
P
P P
e 304 ataidens steel nhows typical step structure8 nitric acid corrosion rate, 0.00060 inch/month annealed same ntee%ated 1 hour at 1 2 W F. shown typical ditch struoture encircling entire grains( nitric acid corroaion rate, 0.00853 inch/month cross seation of grain boundary struoturen
rosion resisting properties of several alloys, including the conventional stainless steels. He demonstrated that the presence of air has a beneficial effect on the resistance of sfainless steels to various media. The effect of velocity in sea water is normally considered beneficial to the stainless steels since it decreases the tendency for these alloys to pit. The effect of inhibitors in reducing the corrosion resistance of various alloys was considered by Brooke (366)who provided a list of chemicals showinginhibiting tendencies. This list is of practical significance since it includes those inhibitors beneficial to the stainless steels in common media. Galvanic attack, pitting, and crevice corrosion were also briefly considered during the past year. Waber and Waber (989) tested the galvanic characteristics of Type 316ELC plate when welded with Type 347 rod and exposed to a hydrofluoric fume condition. The authors constructed a simulated hood for their experiments and found that Type 347 was sufficiently inferior to the molybdenum-containing alloy to make it unsuitable as a weld rod. However, no galvanic tendency between the two materials was noted. Paige and Ketcham (198) compared the galvanic effect of AIS1 Type 321 stainless steel and titanium on various less resistant alloys. The galvanic couples were tested in sodium chloride so!utions and the electrochemical behavior of the stainless steel and titanium was measured. These alloys were found to be surprisingly similar. In checking the pitting resistance of 18-8 stainless steels, Cavallaro and Bighi ( 4 4 ) found that small
additions of caustic soda to sodium chloride solutions greatly minimized pitting attack A somewhat related consideration described by Shriver (847)showed that an electropolished surface increases the corrosion resistance of the 400 series stainless steels by nearly 450% and the 300 series by 750%. May and Humble (179)discussed the possible use of cathodic protection in reducing crevice corrosion and pitting susceptibility of several alloys including stainless steels in sea water. It was found that a cathodic current in quiet sea water reduces pitting and crevice corrosion on Types 410 and 430 stainless steels, but this method is impractical because it resulted in severe blistering when the current was of sufficient magnitude to eliminate corrosion. The blisters were caused by hydrogen evolution. Types 302 and 316 were likewise protected and did not show the blistering effect. Allen (3)provided a very interesting description of fretting corrosion and described possible means for its prevention. This type corrosion is very common in the aircraft industry because it seems to be more prevalent when cloge tolerances are maintained and the aircraft manufacturers operate in just this fashion. He mentioned that factors influencing this attack include motion, oxygen, lubrication, hardness, load, and surface roughness. It was stated that this phenomenon is caused by loosening of the virgin surface material by mechanical action which is then oxidized. Lubrication with molybdenum disulfide appears to be a promising remedy. The literature a l ~ contained o much valuable information on the
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INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
bchsic resistance of stainless steels to various corrosive environments. Of a general nature, Thielsch and Pratt (879) described the highly alloyed austenitic stainless steels and provided data on the resistance of these proprietary compositions to various corrosives, particularly sulfuric acid. They described the effect of mch alloying conditions as molybdenum, copper, silicon, and carbon and discussed the various metallurgical phenomena that are common to these alloys as well as the conventional 18-8 stainless steels. Nelson's (190) corrosion data survey provides much valuable information on 25 different materials of construction including the conventional stainless steels and the wholly austenitic highly alloyed stainless steels. Over 450 common corrosives are included in this valuable book. A unique method for depicting data which is now gaining wide acceptance was first introduced in this book. Golden et al. (108) outlined the corrosion resistance of a high alloy stainless steel, Durimet 20 or Carpenter 20 (29 Nil 20 Cr, 3 Cu, 2 Mol 0.07 C), when providing similar information on titanium and zirconium. Their work included testing in sulfuric wid, nitric acid, other inorganic acids, and various inorganic chlorides. The information provided is a good review of the resistance of this alloy to these severe media. A similar comparison of titanium and zirconium to Type 316 stainless steels was also Gven (176). This comparison was made for 34 different reagents. Shirley and Truman (246) conducted numerous tests on various snstei3tic stainless alloys in 7001, nitric acid to check the effect of this corrdant on a properly heat treated alloy. They found that even in the properly heat treated condition some preferential ath c k a t the grain boundaries occurs, although it does not proceed to eo depth greater than one or two grains, Contamination of nitrim acid by other acid radicals or metallic radicals was also &died. The effect of these various contaminants varied with hydrofluoric acid being the most objectionable. Fontana (83) provided an excellent corrosion chart summarizing the resistance of 18-8-5 stainless steel to all concentrations of nitric acid at varying temperatures. Isocorrosion lines for 5, 20, and 50 mils per year (m.p.y.) divided areas of varying usefulness. Fontana (81)also outlined the resistance of several alloys including Durimet 20 to various concentrations of sulfuric acid as a function of temperature. Six materials were included in this latter chart with an arbitrary dividing line of 20 mils per year being selected as acceptable resistance. The resistance of various austenitic stsinless steels to phosphoric acid was given in a report (676). Various materials of construction were considered in this test program to select improved materials of construction for the production of phoRphoric acid in the manufacture of superphosphate and other fertilizers. Considerable information was available on the cracking of various materials including stainless steels when handling hydrogen sulfide or other solutions containing sulfides. Fraser and Treseder (90) provided information on a detailed laboratory investigation of this problem. They investigated various factors (environmental, metallurgical, and mechanical) involved in sulfide corrosion cracking. Soft cast lZy0 chromium steel and the tu.lstenitic stainless steels were found to be resistant to cracking in sulfide solutions of varying severity, but the precipitation-hardening austenitic and chromium martensitic grades were susceptible. Vollmer (187) also reported on similar tests being conducted on Types 322, 410, and 416 stainless steels in hydrogen sulfide environments, Although complete results were not available, he concluded from preliminary investigations that most materials capable of being heat treated to at least Rockwell C-24 to C-26 may be rendered susceptible to failure. Prange (816) and Bowers et al. (30)alRo reported on work involving the stress corrosion cracking of various materials. These latter four articles constituted a symposium arranged by the National Association of Corrosion Engineers. A summary of experience of several oil companies on this same subject was also reported by the NACE (6.4). The use of various stainless steels in various other specialized
Vol. 45, No. 10
industries was included. Hammond (110) outlined the various alloys avaiIable to the petroleum technologist and discussed the need for careful appraisal of the operating conditions before any alloy is used. Application details on stainless steels in the pulp industry were given by Gow (103). This discussion concerned all phases of pulp mill application, whereas Mattair (178) specifically covered the resistance of stainless alloys to sodium chlorate as used in pulp bleaching. An article by Terry (277) included the use of Type 316L stainless steel for pulp mill digesters. Figures 3 and 4 illustrate these applications. The applicability of various stainless grades in the manufacture of ethylene was also given (46). Information on the potentials of various stainless steels in flowing sea water was given by Huston and Tee1 (129). This paper provided data on the various stainless steels of the 300, 400, and precipitation-hardening groups. Effects of composition, heat treatment, and crevice corrosion on electromotive force (e.m.f.) potentials were discussed. It was found that the average potentials of the straight-chromium steels were highly sensitive to composition changes and heat treatment while the nickelcontaining steels showed little effect from these variables. Brasunas (31)discussed the handling of liquid metals. He pointed out that although these materials may usually entail only a straight solution rate on the alloy in question, impurities or intermetallic compounds may change this situation and selective attack may occur. The type of attack by molten metals on stainless alloys was described. Keefer and Huston (144) described corrosion studies on stainless steels in the Big River Sewage Treatment Works, Baltimore, Md. Various materials, including aluminum, nickel, and copper base alloys were also tested, and plant scale experience with stainless steel in primary settling tanks was cited. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AND STRUCTURE
Information on the general mechanical properties of the stainless alloys was limited and only somewhat secondary propertiea were considered to any extent. Muhlenbruch et al. (188) described data on the torsional properties and Poisson's ratio for various AIS1 stainless steels of the 300 series. The effect of work hardening of the steels and tables covering the results of the described work were considered. Dalziel (57) provided mechanical, physical, and corrosion data of a general type which might be of interest to chemical and welding engineers. Machlin (171) discussed deformation of the stainless steels as it applies to cold working. It was mentioned that by applying strain through phase tr$nsformation more deformation can be accomplished in a given time accompanied by a decreased notch sensitivity and increased impact resistance. The problem of hot brittleness in various nickel-chromium stainless steels was discussed by Hoch (119) with particular emphasis on that type occurring after prolonged annealing. Results of notch-impact and hot tensile tests were included. Comments on the influence of mechanical and electrolytic polishing on the micro and macro hardness of metals was reported (2'74). The influence of various methods of polishing was included as denoted by microscopic and diffraction techniques, Briefly, it was shown that surface hardness usually is increased considerably during polishing. Hodierne and Homer (1a0)provided results on the rapid softening of cold-drawn austenitic stainless steel by induction heating. The effects of shortrtime heating in the temperature range 1100" to 1175' C. were investigated, and it was shown that these materials can be fully softened with average grain size and free from precipitated chromium carbides by this short-time heating method. It was emphasized that an optimum temperature must be obtained followed by rapid quenching if maximum corrosion resistance is to result. Krivohok (165) summarized the published and unpublished information on the austenitic stainless steels at various subzero temperatures and provided an interpretation of the practical significance of the results obtained. He discussed
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the effect of various phases and constituents common t o the stainless steels on their low temperature properties. Juppenlatz (142)also discussed the low temperature properties of the austenitic stainless steels and particularly pointed out that a fully austenitic structure does not guarantee high impact strength a t low temperature. The microstructure has an important bearing on impact strength particularly if precipitated phases exist. The heat conduction of various alloys including stainless steels a t low temperatures was given by Estermann and Zimmerman (76). They described a method by which the thermal conductivity of small samples can be measured. Their results indicate that the Weidemann-Franz ratios were severhl times greater than the theoretical value of 2.45 X 10-8 watt-ohm/degree*, with the deviation being greater for annealed than for cold-worked material. The magnetic properties of the chromium-nickel stainless steels were studied by Bloom and White (87)who discussed the effectof chemical composition on the magnetism exhibited by these compositions. Sucksmith (871) also provided information on the magnetic properties of stainless steel wire with particular emphasis on the effect of magnetism on the recording of sound on wire. He discussed the effect of cold working and heat treatment. Storchheim (868) provided a third discussion on this same subject and showed that differences in magnetic properties of austenitic stginless wire were a direct function of variations in the speed of drawing. He pointed out that fluctuations in magnetism are caused by generation of heat in the wire during draw and higher speeds with additional frictional heat mean increased variations in the structure of the alloy. Friction studieB on various alloys were conducted by Peterson and Johnson (%VI) who used special tests to investigate possible bearing materials for handling liquid metals. Tests under static and slow speed friction conditions were made and friction coefficients of the 18-8 stainless steels obtained. Sully et al. (873) provided information on the emissivity of 18-8 stainless steel to determine the effect of various surfaces on radial heat transfer in engines. Measurements were made over the range 300"to 800"C. It was generally found that roughening of the surface normally about doubled the total emissivity of a sample. Various structural transformations were discussed in the literature during the past year. Eichelman and Hull (71)discussed the austenitic to martensitic transformation in the 18-8 type stainless steels and provided a method for calculating the M , temperature of stainless steels from its composition. A linear equation was developed from a series of experiments on six d3ferent austenitic compositions. The results of their work indicated the relative effectiveness of various elements in lowering the M , temperature, and from these data the previously mentioned equation was derived. Das Gupta and Lement (69) commented on the stabilization of the austenite-martensite reaction of high chromium steels and concluded that no appreciable stabilization of this reaction occurs in the 15% chromium alloy unless some martensite is initially present. Nickel-chromium-iron ternary diagram were given (188) for the compositions in the quenchannealed condition as well as after heating a t 400 ",650",800', and 1100"C. A general discussion on the properties of the 400 series stainless steels was provided (86) and included much information on the structure of these various compositions. Isothermal transformation charts were given for a 9% chromium steel by Frankhouser (88). Frankhouser and Emmanuel (89) discussed tests conducted to obtain a time-temperature-transformation curve for the 7% chromium steel as well as 9% chromium alloy. A comprehensive paper was presented by Kinzel (149) on the carbide precipitation phenomenon in a commercial AIS1 Type 304 stainless steel. Samples of this material were treated in various ways to precipitate chromium carbides. Electrolytic extractions of the treated samples were then made and the resultant product studied by x-ray diffraction and the electron microscope. It was stated that the C r d s precipitate is essentially
two-dimensional in character, and ita shape is determined by the degree of of atomic planes intercepting the interface. The shape arbides wries depending on thek loeation in the structure. It was interesting to note that knife-edge attack by nitric acid or other solution capable of corroding inteTgranularly does not occur on both sides of a carbide but occurs only ou the side with high interfacial energy. Rosenberg and Irish (836) studied the solubility of carbon in an 18 Cr, 10 Ni alloy at various carbon levels (0.007to 0.30%). Samples of materid were heated for extended periods a t 800" F. to precipitate carbides and then heated a t progressively higher temperatures to determine the amount of carbon retained by the structure. The solubility of carbon was found to be 0.08% at 1975"F. which is much lower than previously reported. Blumberg (88)provided a simple empirical formula for approximating the amount of eutectoid carbon which can be retained in straight chromium steels. IR hie work on the behavior of carbides in niobium-stabilized austenitic stainless steel (Type 347)Simpkinson (860)studied the influence of temperature on distribution of carbides. Eutectic carbidm (initially a solid solution of NbC and NbN) as well as "dot" carbides were found in the structure. It was mentioned that the niobium-stabilized steels should not be considered as f o o l p r d since certain incorrect processing procedures m n result in intergranular susceptible material. Dulis and Smith (68) mentioned that, the "incluaioms" commonly associated with niobium-stabisized material are Teally a solid solution of NbC and NbN 00s taining approximately equal amounts of carbon amd Pibmgea I n his work on the mechanism of carburization of some staideras steels Giacobbe (99)observed that the 18-8 stainless shela c t ~ n absorb carbon from "solid" carburizers even though the partid pressure carbon dioxide and water vapor is extremely low. Much emphasis was again given the sigma phase during the past year since this relatively new phase is capable of causing much distress if encountered in considerable quantity, and research workers have been striving to provide as much information as possible regarding its formation and possible effects on the stainless alloys. Cook and Brown (63)studied the range of composition in which nickel-chromium-iron alloys are likely to form sigma a t temperatures from 550" t o 800" C. They reported that with alloys containing less than 20% nickel, phase boundaries for sigma have been closely established, but above t h t nickel content, they have not definitely been fixed. Bowen and Hoar ( d 9 ) studied sigma formation in a molybdenum and titanium containing 18-8 alloy containing approximately equal percentages of ferrite and austenite. After water quenching, reheating this alloy to 850"C. caused a 14 volume yoof sigma to be formed from ferrite with the remaining ferrite slowly transforming to austenite over a period of several hours. Sigma phase embrittlement in a 25 Cr, 20 Ni alloy was studied by Morley and Kirkby (186). The influence of this phase on the mechanical properties was of particular interest, although they studied such other important points as rates of sigma precipitation and distribution of constituents. Sigma phase was found to contain approximately 42% Cr, 10% Ni, 3'% Si, and the remainder Fe. Because coysiderable diffusion of chromium and nickel must occur, long @riods of heating are required to produce it from austenite. In &e type alloy, sigma precipitates mainly a t grain boundaries. Smith and Dulis (861)found that sigma formation in the same type stainless steel (25 Cr, 20 Ni) caused increased yield and tensile strength with decrease in elongation and reduction of area. Most pronounced loss in ductility resulted from annealing a t 2300' F. Work conducted by Lismer et al. (163) on a 25 Cr, 15 Ni alloy showed that sigma forma readily in the ferrite regions. Although wholly austenitic stxuctures caused by increasing the carbon content tend to precipitate sigma in a similar mnnner, they are formed at a slower rate. Talbot and Furman (676)also studied the effect of sigma on impact properties and found thab embrittlement after long exposure a t sigma forming temperaturea increased rapidly with the first few percentages of sigma formed
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COURTESY ARMCO STEEL CORP.
Figure 3. Bank of Four Pulp Digesters Lined with Type 316L Stainless Steel
regardless of the base composition of the alloy. S?rious embrittlement may be produced with as little as 5% sigma present. Dulis and Smith ( 6 4 )studied the microstructure of Types 310 and 347 stainless steels after various critical thermal treatments (at about 1300" F.) and found that sigma is greatly enhanced b y cold working with the Type 310 alloy being much more susceptible to its formation than the other. Koh (162) studied the occurrence of chi phase as found in molybdenum-bearing commercial stainless steels. Various other miscellaneous items pertaining to the general subject are worthy of brief mention. Bastien and Dedieu (16) reviewed the present state of metallographic technique as it pertains to the austenitic 18-8 alloys. Various etching techniques for stainless steel were described (189, 209, 255). Simpkinson (g@) described a means for accurately estimating the per cent ferrite in austenitic stainless steels. Nurse and Wormwell (195) described the isolation and examination of oxide films produced on stainless surfaces. Their work included an electron diffraction pattern of a film removed from a stainless structure. HIGH TEiMPERATURE
Information on several new high temperature alloys was presented in the literature during the past year. A preliminary report on Incoloy was published (155). It is a stably austenitic alloy which was developed to provide good resistance to oxidation, to have strength at elevated temperatures, to provide good handling properties and still contain lesser quantities of critical nickel than some of the other high temperature compositions. An announcement (266) waa made of another new high alloy which presumably possesses good oxidation characteristics a t temperatures as high as 2200 F. Basic data on the general p r o p erties and compositions were given. Tests were also commenced on Rosslyn metal (composite copper-stainless steel sheet) as a possible high temperature material. The article (11)announcing ita possible use indicated that jet engine application would be of primary importance. Two other high alloy nickel-chromium O
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steels developed in Great Britain wem also announced (119,160). For low temperature applications in theorder of 1000"to 1200' F., an improved ferritic stainless steel containing vanadium, tungsten, and molybdenum was mentioned ( 4 7 ) as a possible replacement for many of the austenitic compositions. This 13% chromium steel shows high ductility and other good mechanical properties for operation below 1200' F. Articles on the general high temperature properties of existing alloys were also presented. Geiger ( 9 7 ) reviewed the existing high temperature casting alloys which have been standardized by the Alloy Casting Institute. Data on their properties were included in this paper. Details on fabrication and typical uses were also included. Rose (269) also summarized the general purpose, high temperature alloys and provided data on the various important properties and typical uses. Articles on high temperature alloys were also prepared by Goetcheus (101) and Kinsey (14.8). A book summarizing the elevated temperature properties of stainless steels was prepared by Simmons and Cross (948) under the auspices of the ASTM. It is essentially a graphical summary of elevated temperature data for the commercially produced stainless steels. I n addition to the general information indicated above, much specific data on various properties of the common high temperature alloys were also given. These will be considered in the following paragraphs. Dulis el al. ( 6 7 ) provided creep and stress rupture data on several of the important austenitic stainless steels of the 18-8 types. Their work not only included mechanical testing but observations were made on the microstructure of the alloys after various high temperature tests. From the microstructure standpoint sigma formation and carbide precipitation were the principal changes observed. The niobium-containing Type 316 stainless steel was found to be the most prone to sigma formation. Work was also reported by Andreini and Erra ( 7 ) who compared the creep and fatigue properties of various alloys including the 18-8 types. Guarnieri and Yerkovich (107) discussed the influence of periodic overstressing of stainless materials on their creep properties. They provided exploratory data on the significant variables controlling the cyclic-load creep properties of the various heat resisting alloys including Type 347 stainless steel. The effect of cold work on the creep properties of nickel-chromiumcobalt-iron alloys was given by Frey et al. (93). This work s u p ported their earlier findings that cold work improves the creep resistance of alloys of the type in question. These same authors (99) also described the effect of aging on the creep properties of the N-155 alloy and found it results in progressive lowering of short-time heat resistance due to removal b y precipitation of certain large-radius or substitutional atoms. Short-time aging resulted in marked increase in short-time rupture strength which eliminated intergranular cracking. The aged material also exhibited greater ductility than the unaged alloy. Fleischmann (79) provided detailed information on Timken 16-25-@a t high temperatures. It was found that cold working also improves the mechanical properties of this particular alloy. Wache (290) provided information illustrating the influence of processing history of a stainless steel on its creep resistance. The particular alloy in question was a 36 Ni, 11 Cr stainless steel, and the effects of varying cycles of treatment on the alloy structure were demonstrated with special reference to the nature and distribution of any hardening phases. Michel (183) provided a summary of the creep properties of ferritic and austenitic stainless steels. A report issued by Freeman, Comstock, and White (91) on the high temperature properties of a titanium-stabilized stainless steel directs attention to the small amount of previously published data on the rupture and creep characteristics of this material and provided results of their findings on the subject. They compared the properties of this alloy with the straight 18-8 steels and the niobium-stabilized modification. They found that there was little to differentiate between the two stabilized grades from the
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creep and rupture standpoints with both materials being somewhat superior to the unstabilized grade. The effect of the shape of notch geometry on the rupture strength of several alloys including 19-9-DL (an 18-8 stainless steel containing small percentages of tungsten, molybdenum, and niobium) was given by Davis and Manjoine (60). They reported data from creep r u p ture testa on plain and notched bars of various materials and discussed the effect of such variations as time, sharpness of notch, grain size, hardness, ductility, and heat treatment. Preston (918)obtained data on nine high temperature sheet materials including 19-9-DL. The data included creep behavior, stress rupture properties, tensile, and yield strengths from room temperature to 1OOO' F. Kooistra et al. (163)described test apparatus for obtaining high temperature stress rupture data on tubular specimens and included results on such alloys as 18-8, l&%Nb, and 18-8-Si. Hum and Grant (127) discussed the austenitic Ability and creep rupture properties of 18-8 stainless steel with carbon contents varying from 0.001 to 0.18% and a nitrogen composition varying from 0.005 to 0.176%. The effect of composition changes on structure and creeprupture properties was reported. Hull et al. (126)discussed the effect of a notch and of hardness of the rupture strength of Discaloy (25 Ni, 13 Cr, 3 Mo, 2 Ti, 0.10 C stainless steel). Creep rupture and notchedbar rupture tests were made a t 1OOO' to 1200' F. to check its properties. The influence of sharp notches on the stress rupture characteristics of several other alloys to 1200'F. was discussed by Brown, Jones, and Newman (38). The chromium-cobalt-nickel system at elevated temperatures (1200' C.) was studied by Manly and Beck (173), and their results were considered of importance because several commercial alloys are included in this system. It was found that a t this temperature an extensive amount of a face-centered-cubic solid solution material is present as well as some brittle sigma solid solution. Garofalo et aZ. (96) studied the interrelation of hot hardness and creep in austenitic stainless steels of the high temperature types and found that the presence of sigma influencee the hardness considerably. The extent of room temperature embrittlement is also clearly related to the amount of sigma present. Hot ductility of steels containing sigma is somewhat better than room temperature ductility. The authors indicate that the choice of a steel for high temperature application should depend to considerable extent on the sigma embrittlement. Dulis and Smith (66) described the formation of nitrides during creep rupture testing of 304L stainless steel after 100 hours a t 1500' F. Xray identification was used to show the presence of CrzN and CrN. Beattie and VerSnyder (17) discussed the constituents found in high temperature alloys of the 16-25-6 type. The MITi and F e d phases were identified as well as a new phase, CrMoN,. The abnormal grain growth in the jet engine alloy S-816 (essentially 20 Cr, 20 Ni, 4 Mo, 4 W, 4 Fe, 4 Nb, Co remainder) was described by Rush et al. (933). It was found that abnormal grain growth can be induced by water quenching and, in many cases, by air cooling from 2150' or 2300' F. Thus, prior history has a marked effect on the tendency for this phenomenon to occur in service. Embrittlement of various austenitic high temperature alloys was described by Hoch (119) and Sachs and Brown (234). Application data on the high temperature alloys were also included in the literature. Jackson (138) described the use of nickel-chromium-iron alloys in power station boiler furnaces as superheaters and also (137) outlined their use for salt bath heattreating applications. The resistance of superheater tubing materials to combustion atmospheres of various types a t 1300" F. was given by Blank et al. (26). The suitability of various materials including the 18-8 stainless steel for hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide, and carbon dioxide atmospheres was discussed by Farber and Ehrenberg (77). The high temperature oxidation of iron-chromium alloys was discussed by Caplan and Cohen (43) and a method for checking the high temperature resistance of alloys was described by Brasunas and Uhlig (32). Ely and Eberle
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(73)described an experimental superheater for 2OOO-pound-persquare inch steam service (1250' F.) and made a progress report on the &st 5000 hours of field operation using various stainlese steels. Microstructure examination was made after each test. Ogden and Acorah (196) also provided information on the resisb ance of various nickel-chromium-iron alloys to steam. Several other points of a miscellaneous nature were covered in the literature and will be briefly mentioned. For instance, the use of ceramic coatings over stainless steel parts to eliminate carbide pickup and provide good resistance t o temperatures of 2OOO" F. was considered by Long (166), Penton (208),and an anonymous author (&). Type 321 stainless steel is usually utilized for this type investigation and this particular stainless in mentioned in all three articles. Materials for springs which operate at the high temperatures were also considered (178). Although the maximum temperature consideredwasnearly 700 O F . , the 18-8 type stainless steels were considered aa possible materials of construction. The welding of stainless steel piping for high temperature use was considered in an ASTM release (9) with the intended Specification A 240 coverkg Types 304, 316, 347, and 321 stainless steels. Tremlett (282) described the welding of heat resisting nickel-chromium steels. WELDING
Discussions on the various aspects of welding stainless steeh were again considered to a great extent in the literature with the greatest emphasis being given to the practical aspects of thia problem. A small amount of information on the theoretical aspects (carbide precipitation and intergranular corrosion) waa presented in the section on Corrosion. Shirley and Nicholson (244)described the application of welded construction in the manufacture, storage, and use of nitric acid. Titanium-stabilized 18-8 material. (Type 321) has in general given excellent service in this nitric acid plant although a few unexpected failures occurred under severe conditions. These failures caused them to study the relative merits of Types 321 and 347 stainless steels with the general conclusion that the niobiumcontaining material is superior to the other from the stabilization standpoint, but the added resistance is only necessary under extreme conditions. Another discussion (266)was given on the theoretical aspects of welding Types 430 and 442 straight chromium steels with special emphasis on increasing the corrosion resistance of these materials through titanium additions and with optimum heat treatment. A patent issued to Viles (286) described a means for increasing the corrosion resistmce of stainless steels during welding thraugh the addition of a small percentage of a sulfur-containing compound to the welding gas. The intergranular susceptibility of welded stainless steels was greatly decreased with as little as 5% hydrogen sulfide. Huseby (128) provided brief information comparing the tensile strength of test pieces cut from the weld of pressure vessels made from Type 347 plate and SW-157 welds. The effect of vibration on the microstructural solidification pattern and on mechanical properties of Types 321 and 347 stainless steels during both arc and resistance welding were described by Welty (297). A general discussion on the welding of Rosalyn metal was given (292). The welding of this material is particularly troublesome because of the presence of a copper sheet a t the center of this "sandwich" type material. It is necessary to make certain that the copper alloy is always protected by a continuous stainless steel layer. A Russian article (199) described an investigation of welds made between stainless steel and low carbon steel with such important factors as chemical composition, mechanical strength, and corrosion resistance of the various combinations being discussed. A theoretical discussion on the nature of heat in welding processes was given by Howard (196). Ideas were presented on heat and how it behaves, the role of heat on the metallurgical vasiables, and the effect of heat on the atomic structure.
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Figure 4.
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Type 316L Stainless Steel Welded Fitting for
Practical discussions on the welding of stainless steels by various procedures were presented by Rains (223), Spencer (266), Thielsch (278), and several others (213, 24%). Two books (34, 100) dealing explicitly with the welding of various materials including the stainless steels were also published. Blackwell (2.4) compared the welding of various stainless steels to carbon steel with respect to electrical resistance, conductivity, and melting point. Joseph (140) discussed the technique for welding liighstrength pressure vessels designed to operate a t -340’ F. I n addition t o emphasizing welding techniques on this critical fabrication, the flame cutting, forging, and heat treatment of this steel mere also included. An excellent description of welding problems involved with high alloy castings was given b y Anger et al. (8). Figure 5 illustrates the use of welding to fabricate a difficult-tocast pump casing. Special consideration was also given to specific welding techniques such as spot welding, resistance welding, and arc welding. Harkins and Thompson (111) described a novel method for arc welding the heat resistant stainless alloys, whereas Spencer (266) described procedures utilized with spot, seam, and flash welding. Two other articles (222, 291) dealt specifically with the recommended procedures for arc welding these alloys. Fullerton ( 9 4 ) described the welding of various high alloys by the new roll-spot technique, and Collins et al. (61) reviewed the technique for cladding of mild steel with stainless Type 501 by the Unionmeld cladding method. As with the past several years, considerable information was included in the literature on the shielded inert gas-metal arc method. These discussions were by Berryman (do), Breymeier (SS), Rockefeller (226), and Rose and Braun (227). Breymeier’s study included the use of ultra-slow-motion photography to illustrate the effect of different welding conditions on the results obtained. Berryman’s article described the characteristics of the process and provided comments on factors to consider when designing fabricated parts for “sigma” welding. I n the introductory part of this review the fact that Type 430 stainless steel was being considered for an increased number of applications was pointed out. T o help complete the picture, discussions were included on the weldability of this material. Paret (2U1, 202) compared the welding of this type stainless wit,h
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the standard 18-8 types. Linnert (166) also discussed the welding of the 17% chromium stainless steels and made the comparison to the conventional 18-8 grades. He pointed out that these titanium-stabilized 17 chromium grade8 are easier to control, show corrosion resistance as good as 18-8 in the welded zone, and exhibit less distortion during welding than 18-8. Other aspects of the welding technique were also discussed. Another article (131) describes this procedure in about the same vein. Other miscellaneous articles include the following: The suitability of various steels for flash welding from the German standpoint was given by Hormann (123). The development of inert atmosphere welding in France was described by Dumoulin (68). The welding of special oxidizer tanks from Type 410 stainless steel by seam welding techniques was described by Brown (37), and the use of glass tape as a backup material for improving the root welding of stainless steels was described by Constantine ( 6 2 ) . Paper Mill Piping Kienberger (146) described experiments on the properties and uses of heab resisting ferritic-austenitic arc welding electrodes. His discussion included a comparison of the straight chromium stainless alloys (ferritic), the low nickel types (ferriticaustenitic), and the fully austenitic, high alloy types. They are compared by means of hardness, tensile, and bend tests. An electrode comparison chart for various stainless steel electrodes by different manufacturers was given (296) for ready comparison of similar types. Kerr and Elmer (146) discussed the recovery of chromium during submerged-arc welding and pointed out that the composition of flux depends on the chromium loss; the best fluxes are low in manganese and silicon and high in basic compounds. Considerable information was given on the use of stainless steel welded parts in industry. These include application for jet engines and aeronautical applications (19, 133, 156, 216, 231). Kauhausen (143) described the welding and application of austenitic stainless steels for high pressure boiler plants while the use of these materials for gas turbine application was described in another article (696). A general discussion of the various uses of welded stainless steels in the petroleum industry was given by Geerlings and Vollers (96). ‘il’elding application in the production of pumps and piping was also considered (62, 683). Numerous uses of weldments in the chemical industry were also given in the literature, but many of these were considered in the application section on Corrosion. One particular application (130), described in detail, involved the fabrication of the largest fractionating tower in Canada from stainless-clad plate and Type 416 stainless steel. Various aspects of welding, heat treatment, and transportation were included. The brazing of stainless steels was described by various authors including Bertossa ( Z l ) , Cross (56), Peaslee and Boam (607), Shepard ( 2 @ ) , and Spencer (367). Recommended soldering procedures for stainless steel were given pictorially by Rains (221), and another article (893) described the need for cleaning stainless steels both before and after brazing, welding, and other similar methods of joining. The cutting of stainless stepls by gas or powder methods were also described ( I S , 294). GENERAL
During the past year the general information released on stainless steels was of an excellent caliber and was probably high-
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lighted by two books published by steel companies devoted entirely to stainless steels. The ”Stainless Steel Handbook” (269) devotes chapters to such important topics as the selection of the proper type stainless steel for each type service, the analysis and treatment of these steels, their heat resistant properties, their low temperature properties, and fabrication details on all types considered. Such other topics as the stabilized stainless steels and castings of corrosion and heat resisting stainless alloys are considered. An even more extensive coverage of the various stainless steels is given in “Republic Enduro Stainless Steels” (924) which provides an excellent coverage of all types of stainless steels, their metallurgical considerations, uses, and fabrication detaifs. A pamphlet (4)produced by the American Iron and Steel Institute provides a pictorial story on the production of various wrought steels including stainless. Zapffe (509) described Russian technology in the manufacture of stainless steel in which the use of the elements tungsten, silicon, and nickel is of particular importance. A general description of cast corrosion and heat resistant alloys was given by Schoefer (237). A chart depicting the compositions of caet alloys as well as their mechanical properties and typical uses was induded. This provides helpful data on the most suitable alloy compositions to meet a given situation and, in addition, provides an excellent discussion on what constitutes the various stainless categories. Bloom and White (27)provided information on the selection of chromium-nickel stainless steels for magnetic applications. Experience obtained in processing this type of material has indicated that magnetic properties are affected by composition, drawing practice, and other variables. The article is actually a review of current knowledge on this subject. A general discussion on the precipitation-hardening stainless steels was given by Fairbairn (76) and included 17-4PH, 17-7PH, and stainless W (Type 322). The advantages of these materials in aircraft applications were particularly emphasized. Mott (187) provided data on the 20 Cr, 29 Ni, 2 Mo, 3 Cu alloy (Durimet 20 type) covering such information as machineability, heat treatment, corrosion resistance, and mechanical properties. A description of stainless steel production in Canada and of the advances made during recent years in that country was given by Cotsworth (66). This included all the general properties of the various alloys. Other miscellaneous items on the general nature included procedures by Wilshaw (300)for the identification of metals and alloys by chemical spot testing. This included means for detecting the various stainless steels from other groups and to differentiate one type stainless from another. Manufacture. Information on the production of stainless steels was given by Heger (114)who pointed out that advances in steel melting practices have made it simpler to select the proper grade of stainless steel and specify its properties and heat treatment. Queneau and Ogan (220) more specifically defined the innovations utilized in recent years in stainless melting practice. They described how 0.03% maximum carbon stainless steels are currently being made with the use of ferrochromium pellets. Despite material shortages they point out that quality of the material has improved and heat times have been reduced. Spindler (268) discussed the production of high alloy stainless steel castings with particular emphasis on induction melting techniques for producing alloy heats. The use of gaseous oxygen in electric steel melting has been described by numerous authors in ’past reviews (167), but additional information by Halsey (109) was provided during the past year. Advantages of utilizing this procedure were provided. Werwach (998)pointed out that the use of an oxygen lance in refining stainless steel heats in an electric arc furnace required the utilization of dolomite bricks for a furnace lining. Fedock (78) provided data on the effect of different melting techniques for oxygen-blown high and low carbon stainless steel heats, The relatively new shell molding technique for producing cast-
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COURTE& Of THE DURIRON GO.. !NO.
Figure 5.
Durimet 20 Pump Casting Fabricated by Welding
Quality of casting improved by welding of flange
ings in stainless steels was described in several articles during the past year. A description of the preparation of molding sands for this technique was given by Sullivan (272). In addition, casting details and information on comparative yield, tolerance, and type finish with the conventional sand cast method were cited. Rose (230) provided a summary of specific cost figures and included an appraisal of properties of castings produced by the shell molding technique. Other articles (84, 184, 299) also provided general details on this method. General information on the advantages of this method and details necessary in designing parts for shell molding were given in another article (72). Some information was also available on precision casting. Morlet (186) provided details on the process ahd discussed modifications necessary to produce specific type alloys. Another author (917) made a cost comparison illustrating the advantage of using precision casting for certain products. The production of stainless steel rings by centrifugal techniques was mentioned by Hotson (124). The use of synthetic resins in foundry practice was given in a general discussion by Buttrey (40) who specifically considered urea and phenolic resins for core binding applications. The cleaning of castings by cutting, lancing, and scarfing, where oxygen is utilized, was diacussed by Holub (122). Included in the general description was the powder process which was pointed out as the method being used a t an increasing rate. Information on the rolling of semifinished products was given by Peterson et al. (210)who stated that the trend is toward the increased m e of small and very large mills with the small mills being used for “specialty” steels and the very large mills for high production alloys. Details on a new high precision hot rolling line in a Swedish mill was given in a recent article (g41). In this instance, the materials rolled are high carbon steel and the various stainless steels. A description on the technique used a t one mill for hot extruding stainless steel tubing was given by Brown (56). The information included equipment, materials handling methods, and preparation of billets in this complete description of extrusion work. The extrusion of the various type stainless steels including 304,321, 310, 316, and 446,using the fiber glass sheath technique as developed in France, was described in another article (960). This is the Ugine-Sejournet hot extrusion process which is being utilized to a considerable extent in this country. The use of the glass fiber in place of the carbonaceous lubricants previously employed has had a revolutionary effect on the life of the dies and on the surface quality of the products. Another article by Loewy (164) provides additional information on this process as employed in Scotland and America. An illustrated article (10)on the extrusion of steel propeller blades in one plant was described with each of the thirteen systematic steps
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in the process being illustrated. Fly (80) described the production of stainless steel tubing with such operations as the cold drawing, derodding, and annealing steps being included. An article by Storchheim (169) described the effect of drawing speed on the electrical properties of stainless steel wire. He pointed out that the correct speed should be used to obtain ideal properties including tensile strength and electrical resistivity. Information on forming, bending, and other similar operations was also given in the literature. Close (50) described the use of a new forming tool using cam-action dies for producing flanged and beaded stainless steel rings. The forming of stainless steel tube to specific shapes was described by Bell (19) and included inspection procedures and types of material which can be formed. Description of the Sol-A-Die process for stamping and forming sheet metal parts was given by Spencer (15s) and an anonymous author (74). This method involves the forming of sheet metal by stage dies and was developed to overcome the difficulties encountered in drawing 18-8 stainless steel into intricate shapes. A practical discussion on cold forming of stainless steel parts in relation to processing of austenitic and ferritic stainless steels was given by Rose (2.28). Such cold forming operations as drawing, shearing, brake forming, cold heading, and spinning were considered. A method for forming a spherical joint for exhaust systems in aircraft engines was described in another article (1). In producing this type joint, forming is effected by bulging the tubes by pressure applied to a rubber plug under a hydraulic press. Information on forming and other similar operations as they pertain to the 17y0 chromium stainless steels was given in two articles (e@, $61). The first was a complete outline on the handling of this type material with respect to all operations, whereas the other article provided recommendations by a steel manufacturer for bending and forming this grade stainless steel. Machining. A number of general articles on the machining of stainless steels was provided in the literature during the past year. Von Hambach ($88)provided a practical article on the machining of stainless steels and commented that successful results can be obtained if certain precautions are observed-the use of strong and rigid tools, correct grinding of the tools to produce a fine finish, and the use of accurate measuring equipment and grinding jigs. Robert (885) provided recommendations on machining stainless steels and considered each of the various type stainless alloys separately. Information on the various carbide tools was included. Similar articles were included in four other discussions of a general type (1,6,170,177). A specific article on the drilling of stainless steels and various other alloys was included in one section of a book (169) on machining. Hydroforming of stainless alloys was also included by Danehower (58). Meninger (180) discussed the rough machining of centrifugally cast jet engine rings which are cast in permanent steel molds. Since impurities are forced to the surface by this process, the part must be made with heavy tolerance to eliminate the impurities during machining. Carbide tools are needed to provide the heavy cuts. Details on the type tools best suited for the process, recommended holding devices, optimum feed, and proper coolant were discussed. Machinability tests on various stainless steels were described in another article (6). These tests were made to show differences in machinability of various stainless alloys as used in investment castings. It was pointed out that for this type work free machining stainless steels are not required. Grinding techniques were also briefly discussed in the literature and one particular type operation (163)was of considerable importance because it involved a grinder designed to overcome the relatively poor finish obtained in the French process of extruding stainless steel (Ugine-Sejournet method). A new grinding technique was announced (@) which employs two coated abrasive belts on a centerless grinder and it is claimed to make faster grinding possible than any other method of precision grinding. The grinding of machining tools was also discussed (239). Hot machining methods for difficult-to-machine metals were de-
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scribed by Caminada (41). He points out that interest in hot machining methods has been stimulated in the paat few years because of problems involved in certain industries. These proce dures are basically of two types: in one the entire piece is heated, whereas in the other only a spot immediately in front of the tool is preheated and this area is moved as quickly as possible. Surface Treatment and Miscellaneous. The pickling of stainless steels to remove scale was described by Bary (14) who pointed out that the nitric-hydrofluoric acid bath is being replaced to some extent by a hydrofluoric acid-ferric sulfate solution. He describes the action of this revised bath and recommended procedures for its handling. It is composed of approximately 2% hydrofluoric acid and 6 to 8% ferric sulfate. It is mentioned that the bath works well with the 18-S-S-Mo type alloy. A patent issued to Francis (86) described the descaling of stainless steels using a dip cycle of fused sodium hydroxide followed by a pickle with aqueous sulfuric acid and, finally, dipping in dilute nitric acid. An electrolytic cleaning technique for removing discoloration in stainless welds was discussed by one author (138) while Spencer (852) also described equipment used in polishing and buffing these same alloys. A procedure for finishing precision turbojet parts a t an aircraft factory was described by Kaharl (141).
Other cleaning procedures were discussed including shot bla& ing. One steel company reported (61) a considerable saving with the use of the shotblasting technique on their strip-pickle line, The chief saving was obtained on their straight chromium stainless steels. A similar arrangement was also reported in another article (264). Patton (806) described the use of abrasives scouring a t a large steel plant for obtaining a mirrorlike finish on stainless steels. Detailed information was given by Kinney (147) on the various properties of stainless-clad copper for high temperature service. This material combines the high thermal conductivity of copper with the corrosion resistance and higher temperature properties of stainless steel. It was pointed out that the corrosion resisting characteristics will be the determining factor in selecting a material of this type, but because of the relatively low melting point of copper, the maximum temperature should not exceed 1800" F. The working characteristics of this combination are generally similar to those of other cladding procedures although the copper core tends to confer greater ductility. An article by Korbelak and Okress (164) described the nickel plating of stainless steel as an aid to brazing. Standard nickel plating of the parts in question ensured more satisfactory brazing conditions with relatively large parts being successfully joined by commercial hydrogenbrazing conditions, The proper thickness of deposit for a given condition was included in a table. The recommended practice for plating on stainless steel, as recommended by ASTM Committee B-8, was reported (819). This procedure, issued in 1951, covers scale removal, cleaning, and activation. The use of prealloyed stainless steel powders for producing powder metal parts was discussed in some detail. Grobe and Roberts (106) provided an extensive summary on the use of these powders in industry and provided a large number of practical a p plications where they can be used. Various illustrations accompanied this phase of the article to typify its use. A summary of results on extensive mechanical testing of bars from five types of stainless steel powders was included in their work. The relationship between coining pressures and sintering temperatures was discussed, Greenwood (106) included the stainless steels in his discussion of practices employed in the powder metal industry. Two other articles (181, 19s) also discussed applications for powdered stainless steel compacts and particularly pointed out its usefulness for filters to overcome problems in the food, petroleum, and chemical industries. Conditions of high temperature and corrosion attack can be handled with this type material. Applications. The use of stainless steels in the various indus-
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tries was extensive, but most of the important applications were covered in the sections on Corrosion and High Temperature. Other miscellaneous uses will, however, be cited briefly in order to provide an indication of the extent t o which they are applied. High temperature stainless alloys were discussed in detail in another section, and it is well known that they are used to a considerable extent in aircraft and jet engine applications. There are applications, however, where these alloys must be protected to obtain their maximum properties, and one means for obtaining this protection is t o shield the stainless jets with a ceramic coating. Hicks (117) described such a procedure where the metal life of jet engine components was extended when properly coated and operated in a range le00’ to 2100’ F. Yellott (308) described the use of various high temperature alloys including Type 347 stainless steel for gas turbine locomotives operating with coal. The general use of stainless steels in the United States was outlined (818). Conclusions derived from a visit to the United States by the Great Britain Technical Assistants Mission were printed. This report summarized the use of stainless steel application in this country. A similar article by Lindh and Nathorst (161)described the use of stainless steel in Sweden. The composition, properties, and uses of these materials of both standard and nonstandard types were included. The use of stainless steels on minesweepers was described by Stevens (867). The nonmagnetic properties of these alloys must be carefully controlled to make certain that the ship has no attraction for magnetic mines. A comprehensive discussion on the use of stainless steels in the soft-drink industry was given by Bryan and Selby (39). Thia included discussions on the corrosion resistance of these alloys to citrus fruit concentrates, citric acid, sugar, sodium chloride, and sulfur dioxide. The general use of stainless steels in the chemical industry was also described from a general standpoint by Clarke (@) and an anonymous author ($66). Special needle tubing made from stainless steels has been applied with great success in medicine (176) since different hard-drawn forms of Type 304 combine a high level of stiffness with fair ductility. I n addition to hypodermic needles, its use has been expanded to the surgical field for the treatment of malignant tissues. The use of stainless steels in noncritical applications such as roof drainage equipment was described by Paret (803). Type 430 was utilized because of ita noncritical status. To date it is providing excellent results. HIGH SILICON IRONS
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For the purpose of general information, cast irons with silicon contents in excess of 5% will be considered in this high silicon category. Hilliard and Owen (118)provided data on a study of the iron-carbon-silicon system. Silicon contents utilized were actually up to S%, and microscopic data on alloys in that range were given. Timmerbeif (881) discussed the effect of various alloying elements on the properties of cast iron, and silicon contents up t o approximately 5.35% Si were included. The diffusion of silicon in iron was considered by Batz et al. (16). The effect of silicon on ductile, nodular irons was studied by Sohneidewind and Wilder (836). The magnetic domains on silicon iron alloys by the longitudipal Kerr effect were reported by Fowler and Fryer (86). These checks were made by illuminating the surface with an optical probe, passing the reflected beam through a Nicol analyzer, and measuring the intensity of the transmitted light. Silicon-iron alloys containing from 0.9 to 14.0% Si were checked by Lee (169) for remanence and the temperature variation of permeability. X-ray identification and microscopic work to obtain further information on iron-silicon carbides were reported by Owen and Street (197). Corrosion information on the high silicon iron alloys was quite extensive and included the corrosion data survey compiled by Nelson (190). Fontana (81)also included the high silicon iron
2251
alloys in his corrosion chart on resistance to all concentrations of sulfuric acid. He points out that this type alloy shows corrosion rates below 20 mils per year for all concentrations of this acid up to the normal boiling points. General corrosion information waa also given in a bulletin issued by a manufacturer of these alloys (69). In an article summarizing improvements in corrosion resit& ing materials Franke (87) described the iron-silicon alloys. The corrosion behavior of high silicon iron alloys containing between 11.4 and 17.2% Si was discussed by Markovic (174)including the resistance of these alloys to such destructive corrosives as aluminum chloride and ferric chloride. The high silicon iron alloys were among those Wilshaw (300) covered in his description of idenfication procedures by chemical spot testing. IRON-NICKEL ALLOYS
The martensitic transformation, as it occurs in high nickel alloy cast irons, was described by Laurent and Batisse (167). The formation of martensite was found to favor subsequent graphitization, and it was observed that on reheating the irons while in the martensitic condition, the austenite formed differed from the original and was acicular in character. The authors concluded that in the iron studied, the austenite-martensite transformation is reversible. The wear and frictional properties of various alloys including the nickel cast irons were given in a report by J o h n et al. (139). Information on the properties of the nickel-containing cast irons was given in an article by Hallett (108). The properties investigated included the heat resisting characteristics such as resistance to scaling, growth, and microstructural v a h tions. The engineering properties of the Ni-Resist alloys were given in a bulletin (134). Such properties as resistance to corrosion and heat, strength and toughness, wear resistance, machinability, electrical properties, and thermal expansion were included. The application of nickel cast irons in industry and their r e t t ance to corrosion conditions were considered in some detail in the literature. Nelson (190) also included these alloys in his excellent data survey. The resistance of Ni-Resist to hydrogen sulfide waa considered by Bice et al. (83). It was also stated (194) that NiResist valves have found application for handling hydrochloric acid vapors in a starch refining plant. The alloy is also used in insecticide sprayers (198), in water filters (191),and in applications where nonmagnetic materials are needed (70). Methods for spot testing Ni-Resist to distinguish it from other alloys was described by Wilshaw (300). AUSTENITlC MANGANESE STEELS
Information on the manganese steels was quite limited during the past year. Parr (806) made an x-ray investigation of the epsilon phase in an iron-manganese alloy containing 18.5% manganese. The use of an exothermic feeding compound with cast manganese steels containing 12 to 14% manganese was described by Lazendorfer (168). The effect of liquid metal temperature on the grain size of high manganese steel was described by Gertsman (98). The use of austenitic manganese steels in industry was described by Lomas (166)who provided the principal facts on the history, properties, compositions, heat treatments, and applications of these alloys. Dubinin (63) reported on the impregnation of steel surfaces with manganese from gaseous media. I n this manner, an external surface of manganese steel could surround a mild steel interior. LITERATURE CITED
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(1) (2) (3) (4)
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INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
(6) Ihid., 96, 147-50 (November 1952). (7) Andreini and Erra, A., Metallurgia ital., 44, 299-307 (AugustSeptember 1952). (8) Anger, E. M., Dundon, W. E., and Thompson, G., Welding Engr., 38,48-52 (April 1953); 58-62 (May 1953). (9) ASTM, Preprint 2,37-41 (June 1952). (10) Automotive Inds., 106, 38-9 (May 15, 1952). (11) Ibid., pp. 102, 105-6. (12) Ihid., 107, 40-1 (Aug. 1, 1952). (13) Aversten, I., and Scharfhausen, C., Ciencia y Technka de la Soldudura, 1 (July-August 1951). (14) Bary, J., M&allurgie, 84, 259-61 (1952). (15) Bastien, P., and Dedieu, J., Mdtaur (Corrosion-lnds.), 27, 237-44 (June 1952) (16) Batz, W., Mead, H. W., and Birchenall, C. E., J . Metals, 4 (October 1952). (17) Beattie, H. J , and VerSnyder, F. L., Amer. Soc. Metals, Preprint 1 (October 1952). (18) Brdford, G. T., Materials & Metals, 35, 99-104 (May 1952). (19) Bell, P., Can. Metals. 16, 44, 46 (February 1953). (20) Berryman, J. H., Product Eng., 24, 171-3 (April 1953). (211 Bertossa. R. C.. Weldino J.. 31.441s-7s (1952). (22j Berwick,’I. D. G., and Evans, U. R., J . Appl.‘Chem. (London), 2,576-90 (October 1952). (23) Bice, W. O., Prange, F., and Weis, R. E., IND. ENG.CHEM.,44, 2497-500 (October 1952). (24) Blackwell, W. G., Steel, 132, 138-9 (April 6, 1953). (25) Blank, H. A., Hall, A. M., and Jackson, J H., Trans. Amer. Soc. Mech. Engrs., 74, 813-19 (July 1952). (26) Bloom, F. K., Corrosion, 9, 5 6 6 5 (February 1953). (27) Bloom, F. K., and White, J. S., W i r e and W i r e Products, 27, 1036-8,1126-7 (1952). (28) Blumberg, H. S., Metal Progr., 62,93 (August 1952). (29) Bowen, K. W. J., and Hoar, T. P., Proc. 1st World Metallurgical Congress, 695-706 (1951). (30) Bowers, C. N., McGuire, W. J., and Wiehe, A. E., Corrosion, 8 , 333-43 (October 1952). (31) Brasunas, A. de S., Corrosion, 9, 78-84 (March 1953). (32) Brasunas, A. de S., and Uhlig, H. H., A S T M Bull., No. 182, 71-5 (May 1952). (33) Breumeier. R. T.. Welding J . ( N . Y . ) ,31, 393-9 (1952). (34) Bri&h Welding Research Assoc., 29 Park Crescent, London, W. 1, England, “The Welding of Austenitic and Heat Resisting Steels.” (35) Brooke, M., Chem. Eng., 59, 286-7 (September 1952). (36) Brown, D. I., Iron Age, 171,129-33 (March 19, 1953). (37) Brown, R. L . , Am. Machinzst, 96, 125-8 (Nov. 24, 1952). (38) Brown, W. F., Jones, M. H., and Newman, D. P., Am. SOC. Testing Materials, Preprint 76 (1952). (39) Bryan, J. M., and Selby, J. W., J . Sci. Food Agri., 2, 359-64 (August 1951). (40) Buttrey, D. N., Brit. Plastzcs, 25, 410-15 (December 1952). (41) Caminada, A. A., Materials & Methods, 36, 98-100 (July 1952). (42) Can. Metals, 16,46-7 (January 1953). (43) Caplan, D., and Cohen, M., J . Metals, 4 (October 1952). (44) Cavallaro, L., and Bighi, C , Metallurgia ital., 44, 361-5 (August-September 1952). (45) Ceram. I n d , 59, 96-7, 99-100 (October 1952). (46) Chem. A g e (London), 66, 443-5 (March 22, 1952). (47) Chow, J. G. Y . , and Kaufman, D. W., Iron Age, 170, 166-9 (Nov 6, 1952). (481 Clarke, W B., Australasian Engr., pp. 59-65 (Jan 7, 1953). (49) Close, G. C., Aviatzon A g e , 17, 49-53 (May 1952). (50) Close, G. C., Modern Machine Shop, 25, 154-6, 158, 160, 162, 164 (April 1953). (51) Collins, J. F., Shrubsall, H. I., and Wilson, J. L., Welding J., 31, 1050-1 (1952). (52) Constantine, L. R., Industry and Welding, 26, 41-2, 58, 60-2 (January 1953). (53) Cook. A. J.. and Brown. B. R.. J . Iron Steel Inst. (London),171. 345-53 (August 1952) (54) Corrosion, 8, 351-4 (October 1952). (55) Cotsworth, J. L., Can. Chem. Processing, 36,70,72,74 (September 1952). (56) Cross, A. S., Machine and Tool Blue Book, 49, 208-14, 216-22, 224, 226-28,230 (February 1953). (57) Dalaiel, H. R., Australasian Engr., pp. 53-8 (Jan. 7, 1953). (58) Danehower, R., Iron A g e , 169, 124-5 (April 10, 1952). (59) Das Qupta, S. C., and Lement, B. S., J. Metals, 5 (1953). (60) Davis, E A., and Manjoine, M. J., Amer. SOC.Testing Materials, Preprint 78 (June 1952). (61) Delaney, J. B., Iron Age. 169. 133-5 (June 19,1952). (62) Drahos, F. R., Welding Engr., 37, 36-9 (July 1952); 40-1 (August 1952).
Vol. 45, No. 10
(63) Dubinin, G. N., Doklady Akad. N a u k SSSR,84, 1155-8 (June 21, 1952). (64) Dulis, E. J., and Smith, G. V., Metal Progr., 62, 86-7 (September 1952). (65) Dulis, E. J., and Smith, G. V., Trans. Amer. Inst. Mining Met. Engrs., 4, 1083-4 (October 1952). (66) Dulis, E. J., and Smith, G V., Trans. Am. SOC.Metals, 44, 877-81 (1952). (67) Dulis, E. J., Smith, G. V., and Houston, E. G., Amer. SOC. Metals, Preprint 7 (October 1952) (68) Dumoulin, L., Soudure et Technigues Connezes, 6, 221-35 (September-October 1952). (69) Duriron Co., Inc., Dayton 1, Ohio, Bull. A-2 (1953). (70) Eakin, C. T., Elec. Mfg., 50, 108-12,268, 270,272 (July 1952). (71) Eichelman, G. H., and Hull, F. C., Am. SOC.for Metals, Preprint 9 (1952). (72) Elec. Mfg., 50, 119-21, 328, 330, 332,334 (September 1952). (73) Ely, F. G., and Eberle, F., Trans. Amer. Soc. 1Mech. Engrs., 74, 803-12 (1952). (74) Engineer, 194, 156 (Aug. 1, 1952). (75) Estermann, I., and Zimmerman, J. E., J . Appl. Phys., 23, 57898 (1952). (76) Fairbairn, G. A., Automotive Engineers, Preprint No. 829, (October 1952). (77) Farber, M., and Ehrenberg, D. M., J . Electrochem. Soc., 99, 427-34 (1952). (78) Fedock, M. P., Ind. Heating, 20, 135-6, 138, 140 (January 1953). (79) Fleischmann, M., Iron Age, 170,123-7 (Nov. 20, 1952). (80) Fly, P. V., Steel, 131,94-5 (Aug. 18,1952). (81) Fontana, M. G., IND.ENG.CHEM.,44, 89 A, 90 A, 92 A (April 1952). (82) Ibid., 44, 87 A, 88 A, 90 A (August 1952). (83) Ibid., 44, 101 A, 102 A, 104 A (Xovember 1952). (84) Foundry, 80, 108-11 (September 1952). (85) Fowler, C. A., and Fryer, E. M., Phys. Rev.,Ser. 2, 86, 426 (May 1, 1952). (86) Francis, C. B. (to United States Steel C o . ) , U. S. Patent 2.569,158. (87) Franke, E., Werkstofe u. Korrosion, 3,265-74 (July 1952). (88) Frankhouser, W. L., Metal Progr., 61,96B (May 1952). (89) Frankhouser, W. L., and Emmanuel, G. N., Ibid., 61, 74-9 (May 1952). (90) Fraser, J. P., and Treseder, R. S.,Corrosion, 8,342-50 (October 1952). (91) Freeman, J. W., Comstock, G. F., and White, A. E., Trans. Amer. SOC.Mech. Enors., 74,793-801 (July 1952). (92) Frey, D. N., Freeman, J. W., and White, A. E., Natl. Advisory Comm. Aeronaut., Rept. 1001 (1950). (93) Ihid., Tech. Note 2586 (January 1952). (94) Fullerton, J. R., Materials & Methods, 37, 166, 168, 170 (February 1953). (95) Garofalo, F., Malenock, P. R., and Smith, G. V., Amer. Soc. Metals, Preprint I8 (October 1952). (96) Geerlings, H. G., and Vollers, C., World Petroleum Congr., Proc., 3rd Congr., Hague, 1951, Sec. VIII, 15-31. (97) Geiger, G. F., 4th Intern. Congr. I n d . Heating, Paper 146, Group I, Section 16 (1952). (98) Gertsman, S. L., Am. Foundryman, 23, 48 (February 1953). (99) Giacohbe, J. B., Am, Soc. for Metals, Preprint 3 (1952). (100) Gilhcrt, L., “Pocket Manual of Arc Welding,” Cleveland, Ohio, Industrial Book Co. (101) Goetcheus, P., Ind. Heating, 20, 454-6, 458, 460, 462, 464 (March 1953). ENG. (102) Golden, L. B., Lane, I. R., and -4cherman, W L., IND. CHEM.,44,1930-9 (1952). (103) Gow, J. T., P u l p & Paper, 26,96. 98,100,102 (December 1952). (104) Gray, A. G., Steel, 132, 94-7 (March 9, 1953). (105) Greenwood, H. W., Metallurgia, 46, 289-92, 298 (December 1952). (106) . , Grobe. A. H.. and Roberts. G. A.. Precision Metal Moldina. - . 10. . 23-8,67-70 (July 1952). (107) Guarnieri, 0. J.. and Yerkovich, L. A., Am. SOC Testing Materials, Preprint 72 (1952). (108) Hallett, M. M., J . Iron Steel Inst. (London), 170, 321-9 (April 1952). (109) Halsey, R. B., Australasian Engr., 66-9 (Jan. 7, 1953). (110) Hammond, R., Petroleum. (London), 15, 321-5 (December 1952). (111) Harkins. F G.. and Thomason. , H. C.. Am. Machinist.. 96.. 11824 (Deo. 8, 1952). (112) Harris, G. T.. and Child, H. C. (to Wm. Jessop and Sons, Ltd.), Brit. Patent 668,889. (113) Hatschek, R. L., Iron Age, 171,135-8 (March 12,1953). (114) Heger, J. J., Am. Machinist, 96, 119-22 (Oct. 13, 1952). ’
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INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Heger, J. J., Corrosion, 8, 222-3 (June 1952). Hermelin, B., 4th Intern. Mech. Eng. Congr. (June 1952). Hicks, R. G.,Am. Machinist, 96,99-100 (July 21,1952). Hilliard, J. E.,and Owen, W. S., J . Iron Steel Inst. (London), 172,268-82 (November 1952). (119)Hoch, G., Archiv Eissnhuttenzo., 23,257-75 (July-August 1952). (120) Hodierne, F. A., and Homer, C. E., J . I r o n Steellnst. (London), 171,249-53 (July 1952). (121) Holtzworth, M. L., Beck, F. H., and Fontana, M. G., Corrosion, 8,222-3 (June 1952). (122) Holub, E. H., Blast Furnace Steel Plant, 40, 1197-9 (1952). (123) Hormann, E.,Weldina J.,31,318s-20s (19521. (124) Hotson, C. V., Can. Metals, 15, 6 2 4 (October 1952). (125) Howard, R. T., Welding J., 32, 127-31 (1953). (126)Hull, F. C., Hann, E. K., and Scott, H., Am. SOC.Testing Materials, Preprint 75 (June 1952). (127) Hum, J. K. V., and Grant, N. J., Trans. Am. SOC.Metals, 45,
-
1
m
105-33 (1953). (128) Huseby, R. A., Metal p r o p . , 61, 96 (May 1952). (129) Huston, K. M., and Teel, R. B., Corrosion, 8,251-6 (July 1952). (130)Industry and Welding, 25,66-8,70-2 (September 1952). (131)Ibid., 25, 58-60, 62,98-9 (December 1952) (132)Ibid., 26, 50, 52, 54, 91 (February 1953). (133)Ibid., 26, 42-3, 45, 73 (April 1953). (134)International Nickel Co., Inc., 71 Wall St., New York 6,N. Y., “Engineering Properties and Applications of Ni-Resist” (1952). (135)Ibid., “Preliminary Report on Incoloy” (1952). (136)Iron Age, 171, 110-12 (Jan. 22, 1953). (137)Jackson, J. H., Alloy Casting Bulletin, No. 16, 1-5, 7-10 (November 1952). (138) Jackson, J. H., 4th Intern. Congr. I n d . Heating, Group I , Section 16,Paper 144 (1952). (139) Johnson, R. L.,Swikert, M. A,, and Bisson, E. E.. Natl. Advisory Comm. Aeronaut., Tech. Note 2758 (August 1952). (140) Joseph, J., Industry and Welding, 25, 40-2, 91 (September 1952). (141)Juppenlatz, J. W., Iron Age, 170,147-51 (Sept. 4,1952). (142) Kaharl, D. J.. Machinery ( N . Y.),58,145-51 (August 1952). (143)Kauhausen, E.,Amer. SOC.Metals, Proc. First World Metallurgical Congr., 429-35 (1952). (144) Keefer, C. E.,and Huston, K. M., Sewage and Ind. Wastes, 24, 1209-20 (1952). (145) Kerr, J. G., and Elmer, D. A., Welding J., 31,431s-8s (1952). (146) Kienberger, J. P., Sheet Metal Inds., 30, 23-43 (1953). (147) Kinney, J., Product Eng., 23,129-33 (April 1952). (148) Kinsey, H. V., Can. Metals, 15,20,22,24(December 1952). (149) Kinzel, A. B., J . Metals, 4 (May 1952). (150) Kirkby, H. W.,and Sykes, C. (to Firth Vickers Stainless Steels, Ltd.), Brit. Patent 669,131. (151)Knapp, W. E.,and Bolkcom, W. T., Iron Age, 169, 129-34 (April 24,1952); 140-3 (May 1,1952). (152) Koh, P. K., J . Metals. 5, Sec. 2 (February 1953). (153)Kooistra, L. F., Blaser, R. U., and Tucker, J. T., Tran8. Amer. SOC.Mech. Engrs., 74,783-91 (July 1952). (154) Korbelak, A., and Okress, E. C., Plating, 39, 1220-2, 1228 (1952). (155) Krivobok, V. N., Natl. Bur. Standards, Circ. 520,112-34 (1952). (156) Lanphier, B. T.,Machine Design, 24,112-28 (July 1952). (157) Laurent, P., and Batisse, M., Rev. de mbt., 49,129-39 (February 1952). (158) Lazendorfer, E., Iron and Steel (London),25,283-8 (June 1952). (159) Lee, E W., Proc. Phys. SOC., 65,Sec. B,455-6 (June 1,1952). (160) Lincoln, R.A., and Pruger, A. A., Iron Age, 171, 127-31 (Feb. 26,1953); 178-81 (March 5,1953). (161) Lindh, G.,and Nathorst, H., Jernkontorets Ann., 136, No. 10, 413-28 (1952). (162) Linnert, G. E.,l ~ o nAge, 169, 97-100 (June 26, 1952); 170, 128-32 (July 3,1952). (163) Lismer, R. E.,Pryce, L., and Andrews, K. W., J . Iron Stee2 Inst. (London), 171,49-58 (May 1952). (164) Loewy, E.,Iron Steel Engr., 29,65-8 (April 1952). (165) Lomas, J., Machinery Lloyd (Ooerseas Ed.), 24, 77-9 (Aug. 16, 1952). (166) Long, J. V.,Machine Design, 24,122-6 (May 1952).
[email protected].,43,2258-71 (1951). (167)Luce, W.A., IND. (168) McFarlane, N. B., J . Metals, 4,1284-5 (1952). (lG9) Machine and Tool Blue Book, 48, 234-44, 246,248,250, 252, 254 (August 1952). (170) Machinist, 96,1693-708 (Oct. 18,1952). (171) Machlin, E.S.,Iron Age, 171,106-9 (Jan. 22,1953). (172) Mainspring, p. 14 (August 1952). (173) Manly, W. D., and Beck,P. A., Natl. Advisory Comm.Aeronaut.. Tech. Note 2602 (February 1952). (174) Markovic, T , N a f t a (Yugoslavia), 3,63-6 (1952). (175)Materials & Methods, 35, 115-17 (January 1952).
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(176)Ibid., 35, 106-8 (June 1952). (177)Ibid., p. 135. (178) Mattair, R., Paper Ind., 33,1187-8 (January 1952). (179) May, T. P., and Humble, H. A., Corrosion; 8, 50-8 (February 1952). (180) Meninger, F., Steel, 131, 78-9 (Oct. 6,1952). (181) Metallurgia, 46, 38 (July 1952). (182)Metal Progr., 62, 9GB (August 1952). (183) Michel, A., Ibid., 63, 1204 (January 1953). (184)ModernIndustry, 23,107-8,110(June 15,1952). (185)Morlet, E.,MBtaux (Corrosion-Inds.), 27, 401-13 (October 1952). (186)Morley, J. I., and Kirkby, H. W., J. Iron Steel Inst. (London), 172,129-42 (October 1952). (187) Mott, N. S., Chem. Eng. Progr., 48,208 (April 1952). (188) Muhlenbruch, C. W., Krivobok, V. N., and Mayne. C. R.. Amer. SOC.Testing Materials, Proc., 51,832-52 (1951). (189)Nehrenberg, A. E.,Metal Progr., 62,91-2 (July 1952). (190) Nelson, G.A., “Corrosion Data Survey,” Shell Development Co.. San Francisco. Calif. (191) Nickei Topics, 5, NO.'^, 5 (1952). (192)Ibid., 5, No. 4,7 (1952). (193)Ibid., 5,No. 6,G (1952). (194)Ibid., 5,No. 7,3 (1952). (195) Nurse, T. J., and Wormwell, F., J . Appl. Chem.,2,550-3 (1952). (196) Ogden, P., and Acorah, R., Univ. Missouri Eng. Expt. Sta. Bull. Ser., 53, No. 38 (1952). (197) Owen, W.S.,and Street, B. G., J . Iron Steel Inst. (London), 172, 15-18 (September 1952). (198) Paige, H.,and Ketcham, S. J., Corrosion, 8,413-18 (December 1952). (199) Palchuk, N. I., Avtogennoe Delo, 22, 1 4 (December 1951). (200) Paret, R. E., Elec. Mfg., 50, 112-15, 342,344, 346 (October 1952); 13741,330,332,334 (November 1952). (201) Paret, R.E.,Machinery ( N . Y.),59,182-8 (December 1952). (202)Paret, R. E.,Materials & Methods, 36, 100-4 (November 1 952). (203) Paret, R. E.,Sheet Metal Worker, 43, 37-8,79,82 (June 1952). (204)Parina, J., Metal Progr., 62,97-114 (September 1952). (205) Parr, J. G.,J . Iron Steel Inst. (London), 171, 137-41 (June 1952). (206) Patton, W.G., Iron A g e , 170,155-7 (Dee. 11,1952). (207) Peaslee, R. L., and Boam, W. M . , Welding J., 31, 651-62 (1952). (208)Penton, H., Western Metals, 10,37-9 (April 1952). (209) Peru Bull., 5,95-7 (March 1952). (210) Peterson, E. T., King, L. W., and Peterson, E. C., Iron Steel Engr., 29, 69-77 (October 1952). (211) Peterson, M. B., and Johnson, R. L., Natl. Advisory Comm. Aeronaut., R. & M . E51L20 (1952). (212) Petroleum, 15,328-30 (December 1952). (213)Ibid., pp. 331-2, 334. (214) Pourbaix, M., and Van Rysselberghe, P., Intern. Comm. Electrochem Thermodynam. and Kinet., Proc. bnd Meeting, 219-29 (1951). (215)Prange, F.A., Corrosion, 8,355-7 (October 1952). (216)Prchal, L. A,, Machinery, 59,189-91 (December 1952). (217)Precision Metal Molding, 10,30-1 (August 1952). (218)Preston, D., Amer. Soc. Testing Materials, Preprint 85 (June 1952). (219) Products Finishing, 16,78,80,82 (August 1952). (220)Queneau, B. R., and Ogan, A. C., Iron Age, 170,165-9 (Dee. 4, 1952). (221)Rains, E.M.,Sheet Metal Worker, 43,52-3 (July 1952). (222)Ibid., 44, 44-5 (November 1952). (223)Ibid., 44, 8G-7 (January 1953). (224) Republic Steel Corp., Republic Building, Cleveland, Ohio,
“Republic Enduro Stainless Steels.”
(225) Robert, J. J , Am. Machinist, 96,109-12 (Oct. 27,1952). (226) Rockefeller, H. E.,Welding J., 31,575-88 (1952). (227) Rose, A. S.,and Braun, M. A,, Ibid., 31,1121-8 (1952). (228) Rose, K.,Materials & Methods, 36, 101-16 (July 1952). (229)Ibid., 36, 103-7 (October 1952). (230)Ibid., 37, 73-7 (January 1953). (231)Rosenberg, A. J., Welding J., 31,407-13 (1952). (232)Rosenberg, S. J., and Irish, C. R., J. Research Natl. Bur. Standards, 48,40-8 (1952). (233)Rush, A. I., Freeman, J. W., and White, A. E., Natl. Advisory Comm. Aeronaut., Tech. Note 2678 (April 1952). (234)Sachs, G., and Brown, W. F., American Society for Testing Materials, Preprint 74 (1952). (235)Satz, L H., Mstal Progr., 62,96 (August 1952). (236) Schneidewind, R., and Wilder, H. H., Trans. Am. Foundrymen’s SOC., 60,322-9 (1952). (237)Schoefer, E. A,, Machine Design, 24,148-54 (September 1952).
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INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
(238) Schor, H., Ind. Heating, 19,1234,1236 (July 1952). (239) Screw Machine Engineering, 24, 55-6 (March 1953). (240) Sheet Metal Inds., 29, 611-23 (1952). (241) Ihid., pp 717-22. (242) Ibid., 30, 217-28, 244 (1953). (243) Shepard, K R., Welcling J., 31,424-5 (1952). (244) Shirley, H. T., and Nicholson, C. G., J . Iron Steel Inst. (London), 170, 111-18 (February 1952). (245) Shirley, H. T., and Truman, J. E., Ibid., 171, 354-8 (August 1952). (246) Ibid., 172, 377-80 (December 1952). (247) Shriver, G. L., Western Metals, 10,51-2 (June 1952). (248) Simmons, W. F., and Cross, H. C., American Society for Tesb ing Materials, Spec. Tech. Pub. 124 (1952). (249) Simpkinson, T. V., Iron A g e , 170, 166-9 (Dee. 11, 1952). (250) Simpkinson, T. V., Metallurgia, 47,18-24 (January 1953). (251) Smith, G. V., and Dulis, E. J., Amer. SOC.Testing Materials, Preprint 82 (June 1952). (252) Spencer, L. F., Metal Finishing, 51,70-7 (March 1953). (253) Spencer, L. F., Steel Processing, 38, 244-9, 257 (1952). (254) Ibid.. DD. 288-94. 298. 34W3. 350. (255j Spen&r, L. F., @eZdi& Engr.’, 37,45-53 (October 1952). (256) Ibid., pp. 55-9. (257) IM., 38,52-6 (March 1953); 53-7 (April 1953). (258) Spindler, B., Foundry, 80, 110-13 (August 1952). (259) Ludlum Steel Corp., . . “Stainless Steel Handbook,” Allegheny ~. . . Pittsburgh, Pa. (260) Steel, 130, 92-6 (June 2, 1952). (261) Ibid., 130, 95 (June 9, 1952). (262) Ihid., 131,90-1 (November 17, 1952). (263) IWd., 131, 102 (Dec. 8, 1952). (264) Ibid., 132, 86, 89 (Feb. 16, 1953). (266) Steel Horizons, 14, 20-3 (Summer 1952). (266) Ibid., 15, NO. 1, 8-9 (1953). (267) Stevens, L. G., Welding Enp., 38, 23-5 (February 1953). (268) Storchheim, S., Iron Age, 171, 140-2 (Feb. 12, 1953). (269) Ibid., 171, 135-8 (April 9, 1953). (270) Streicher, &I. A., ASTM Bulletin, No. 188, 35-8 (February 1953). (271) Sucksmith, W., Metal Treatment and D r o p Forging, 19, 545-6, 649 (December 1952). (272) Sullivan, G. F., ITon A g e , 169, 112-16 (June 26, 1952).
Vol. 45, No. 10
(273) Sully, A. H., Brandes, E. A., and Waterhouse, R. B.,Brit. J . Appl. Phys., 3,97-I01 (March 1952). (274) Sulzer Tech. Rev. (Switz.), No. 3, 17-23 (1952). (275) Talbot, A.M., and F’urman, D. E., Amer. SOC.Metals, Preprint 2 (October 1952). (276) Tennessee Valley Authority, “TVA Chemical Engineering Report No. 2” (1948). (277) Terry, J. G., Steel, 131,82-4 (Sept. 1,1952). (278) Thielsch, H.. Welding Research Council Bull., 14 (September 1952) (279) Thielsch, H., and Pratt, W. E., Iron A g e . 170. 135-9 (July 10, 1952). Tice, E. A., Chem. Eng. Progr., 48,329-32 (July 1952). Timmerbeil, H., Giesserei, 38, No. 2,25-9 (1951). Tremlett, H. F., Welding and Metal Fahricatim, 20, 258-61 (June 1952); 299-303 (August 1952). Tucker, A. J. P., Welding and Metal Fabricationn,20, 253-7 (July 1952). Udy, ILI. C., Battelle Tech. Rev., I: 84-8 (August 1952). Uhlig, H. H., and Woodside, G. E., J . Phys. Chem., 57, 280-3 (March 1953). Viles, P. S. (to Standard Oil Co.), U. S. Patent 2,626,459 (Jan. 27, 1953). Vollmer, L. W., Trans. Can. Inst. Mining Met.. 55, 89-95 (February 1952). Von Hambach, E., Machinist, 9 6 , 2 7 1 4 (Feb. 23, 1952). Waber, J. T., and Waber, S. F., Metal Progr., 63, 204, 206, 208 (January 1953). Wache, X., MBtaux (Corrosion-Inds.), 27,56-68 (February 1952). Welder. 21, 80-3 (October-December 1952). Welding Engr., 37,42-3 (September 1952). Ibid., 37,60-1 (October 1952). Ibid., pp. 64-6. Ihid., pp. 73-5. Ibid., 38, 23 (January 1953). Welty, J. W., Welding J., 31, 3615-65 (1952). Werwach, H., Stahl u . Eisen, 72, 341-5 (March 27, 1952). Western Metals, 1 1 , 5 6 2 (February 1953). Wilshaw, C. T., Metallurgiu, 45, 102-6 (February 1952). Works, G. A., Corrosion,8,217-21 (June 1952). Yellott, J. I., Power Eng ,56,56-9 (May 1952). Zapffe, C. A., Iron Age, 171,138-42 (March 19, 1963).
Tin and Its Alloys ROBERT J. NEICERVIS Tin Research Institute, Inc., Columbus 1, Ohio Restrictions on tin have been removed. For the last five years prcduction has markedly exceeded consumption. The future supply is ample. An unusual new use for tin has been discovered; it imparts weldability and ease of fabrication to high strength titanium alloys. A method of bright electrotinning steel strip in a phenolsulfonic bath has been announced. This is the first instance of bright nontoxic electrotinning of strip. Many marked improvements have been made in existing processes using tin and in recently developed materials containing tin. These include a method of reducing sludge in the “halogen” electrotinning process and improved aluminum-tin strip bearings containing 20 to 30yo of tin.
I
T IS customary to begin these annual reviews with comments
on the supply picture. This year there is plenty of tin. The National Production Authority believed that U.S. tin reserves had reached a level where all controls over uses and stocks could be removed on Feb. 6,1953. The only requirement is that consumers must make monthly reports on consumption and stocks. I n the light of production figures, this bit of news comes none too soon. For five consecutive years tin output has exceeded consumption, and by a considerable amount. I n 1952 tin production was 168,000 long tons, and tin consumption was 128,000 long tons, FUTURE PROSPECTS FOR TIN
The Paley Report (69, 140, 141) showed tha.t the outlook for tin for the next 30 years or so is promising, particularly from the
consumer’s standpoint, since the projected increase in future demand for tin is less than for any of the key commodities. Further, it points out that in the near future tin may not be regarded as critical because of known alternatives. Thus, under conditions of no artificial restraint, a modest increase in consumption with ample supplies is forecast (69). Concurrent with all this reassurance, belated, if not significant, suggestions for conserving tin have appeared (109). These belie the fact that tin is indeed an important constituent in marine engineering by showing that the combined properties of tin babbitts, bronzes, and solders make i t unwise to use tin substitutes for reasons other than scarcity, NEW TIN-CONTAINING MATERIALS
Titanium-Tin and Zirconium-Tin Alloys. Probably the most dramatic use of tin to be announced this year is its use in Rem-Cru’s titanium alloy A-110 (110,000 pounds -per sauare inch . . . yield). The tin constituent strengthens the alloy, but more important it imparts weldability t o the alloy making i t the only
