DU PONT RESEA E. K. BOLTON, E. 1. du Pont
de Nemours & Company, Wilmington Del.
graphite. His B-blasting powder, or soda powder as it was commonly known, gave excellent results in the most exacting field tests, and because of its low price was adopted almost overnight throughout America’s iron and coal fields. This was a contribution of major importance t o the industrial development of the United States. The Civil War was yet to be fought. The industrial age had yet to be born in America. Yet here war an authentic piece of industrial research of the sort that helped to make possQde our present economic and social structure. Du Pon’t’s first formal research laboratory was the Eastern Laboratory, erected a t the Repauno dynamite plant in 1902 for research on explosives. This was one of the first industrial research laboratories in this country and, as far as I know, represented the earliest organized research effort in American chemical industry. The first director of this laboratory was the late Charles L. Reese, a leader of industrial research during tEe.first two decades of this century. One of the men who started his career at the Eastern Laboratory and has had an important part in the development of D u Pont research is C. Rf. A. Stine, now a vice president, member bf the Executive Committee, and adviser on research and development. One of the early investigations in this new laboratory was undertaken t o determine why certain batches of nitroglycerin required two hours or more to separate from the spent acids, while others separated in 20 minutes. Nitroglycerin is prepared by adding a mixture of sulfuric and nitric acids to glycerol under carefully controlled conditions. It was found that delay in separation resulted from the presence of colloidal silica in certain lots of glycerol. More important, it was found that the addition of a small amount of sodium fluoride t o the mixture of sulfuric and nifric acids, and a small amount of sodium silicate to the
N ACCEPTING the Perkin Medal, I am deeply conscious of the fact that any credit for certain research accomplishments with which I have been connected belongs to the organizations of able research chemists with whom i t has been my privilege to be associated. As their representative, I am happy to accept this award because, in honoring me, you honor them. On occasions such as this the medalist has often discussed some phase of the research with which he has recently been associated. It is not possible for me to do this, as the greatest part of our work for the past three years has been concerned with matters covered by military secrecy. Instead, therefore, I have chosen to tell you something of the history, growth, and organization of Du Pont research. It is a story that has never been told in more than a fragmentary way, and it goes back to the beginning of the company in 1802. The founder of our company, EleuthBre Irknee d u Pont de Nemours, was a pupil of Lavoisier, father of modern chemistry. From Lavoisier Eleuthbre learned the art and science of making gunpowder. But he learned more. He learned the importance of research, of continual efforts to invent the new and improve the old. He established a pattern of scientific procedure that was stamped firmly upon the Du Pont Company, and has endured and grown ever since. Early records show that from the start Eleuthkre sought to improve both his process and his product, black powder. Ever mindful of the safety of his workmen, he also devoted himself to experiments that would reduce the danger of explosions. His investigations of more than 140 years ago-looking toward better quality and lower cost, with greater safetyset a n example for future D u Pont research. All Du Pont research was originally carried out in works Iaboratories. under the direction of the works superintendent, althougn over the years several members of the Du Pont family had laboratories connected with their homes, in which research work was conducted. Space does not permit a discussion of the numerous investigations carried out in the early days, but I will outline briefly one research development during the 1850’s which had an important effect on the business of the company. A large and new market for blasting powder was being developed at that time as a n aid in mining, particularly in Pennsylvania’s anthracite region. Henry du Pont, then head of the company, felt that i t should be possible to develop a low-cost powder suitable for blasting. The job of developing such a powder was turned over to Lammot du Pont, grandson of Eleuthere the founder, and father of our present Chairman of the Board of Directors. Lammot found the answer in the use of low-cost sodium nitrate instead of the relatively expensive potassium nitrate previously used as the oxidizing agent in powder. For a number of years attempts had been made to use sodium nitrate (Chile saltpeter), but the deliquescent properties of this material and its accompanying impurities had defeated every effort. The powder soon became damp and failed i o fire. Lammot overcame this difficulty by glazing his powder with
Marston Taylor Bogert, wearing the historic Perkin mauve tie, presents the medal to Elmer K. Bolton
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explosions. EXPANSION INTO NEW FIELDS
For about one hundred years the company manufactured only black powder, dynamite, and smokeless powder; as a result, early research activities were limited to the explosives field. Around the turn of the century, however, manufacturing activities were extended into collateral fields. First departure from explosives came in 1904 when, through the purchase of the International Smokeless Powder and Chemical Company, D u Pont began manufacture of special types of nitrocellulose for industrial applications. The next few years marked the company’s entry into the field of pyroxylin solutions, belt cements, dips for the Welsbach gas mantle, and the old type of high-viscosity lacquers. Many years were to elapse before the development of Duco low-viscosity nitrocellulose lacquers. In the meantime, research activities were extended and broadened through the establishment of the Experimental Station, near Wilmington, in 1903. This new laboratory was under the direction of the Development Department, which had just been organized for the purpose of expanding the business of the company. During the administrations of Pierre S. du Pont the plan for diversifying the activities of the company in the chemical field was initiated, and this policy was continued under Ir6nCe du Pont and Lammot du Pont, and has also been continued by Walter S. Carpenter, Jr, now president of the company. Diversification of the company’s activities was, for the most part, accomplished in two ways. First, companies well established in certain lines of manufacture were acquired. I n this way Du Pont entered the manufacture of nitrocellulose-coated fabrics, nitrocellulose plastics, rubber-coated fabrics, paints, varnishes, lacquers, pigments, inorganic chemicals, electrochemical products, ammunition, and guns. The second method of expansion was to acquire patents, processes and “know-how”
from established companies abroad, chiefly Great Britain and France--in many cases through the formation of subsidiary corn-panies. By this method the company began the manufacture of intermediates and dyes, ammonia, rayon, and cellophane. Through the purchase of patents and processes from abroad, many years of research effort were saved, and the time necessary’ to start new activities was reduced to a minimum. Following World War I, German patents on intermediates and dye manufacture TT-ere licensed from the Chemical Foundat,ion. Without these patents development of the American d y e industry would have been greatly retarded. I n fact, it is doubtful if America could have manufactured certain important classes of dyes without these German patents. The time saved t,hrough the purchase of patents and processes from abroad was used in more advanced research. The acquisition of a company was followed inevitably and quickly by an expansion of the research activities of the new business. The acquisition of processes was followed inevitably and quickly by the establishment of research organizations to assist in reaching a production basis and to seek further advances. This may be summarized-and i t should be put this way because it describes one of the foundation stones upon which D w Pont, rests-by saying that every growth in the company’s manufacturing activities has been accompanied by a fully commensurate growth in research activities. In 1911 a centralized Chemical Department was established to take care of all research activities of the company, and this plant continued in operation for about ten years. I n 1921, however, 8. complete reorganization pf the methods by which the business OF the company v a s conducted marked the beginning of our present decentralized plan of research, Under this plan the manufacturing departments were organized with research divisions, t h e
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personnel of which was drawn from members of the Chemical Department; these research divisions were, and still are, responsible only to the general managers of the departments. Furthermore, directors of the research divisions are on the same organization level as directors of production an? sales. The organization remaining after departmental research divisions were established constituted the nucleus of a central Chemical Department, with laboratories a t the Experimental Station. This Chemical Department was wholly independent of any manufacturing department, reporting directly to the president and Executive Committee. The director of the Chemical Department has the same status as general managers of manufacturing departments and directors of auxiliary departments. He serves as adviser t o all departments on research matters. Activities of the Chemical Department are chiefly concerned with pioneering-applied and fundamental research. The results of its investigations flow into the research divisions of the manufacturing departments. Du Pont’s chemlcal activities are so diverse 61s t o provide a large framework of interest and experience within which a strong central research department can operate. It should be emphasized that the Chemical Department, by virtue of its independent position, is not hampered by the daily problems arising from manufacture. The background and experience oE our manufacturing departments influence the selection of their new research activities; but with a central Chemical Department, free to investigate any problem in the entire field of chemistry, there is less likelihood of attractive opportunities being neglected because they do not come within the immediatr. interests of the manufacturing departments. TYPES OF RESEARCH
The research activities of the Du Pont Company in normal times fall into three broad categories: (1) improvement in existing processes and products, ( 2 ) development of new products, and (3). fundamental rsearch. IMPROVEMENT IN EXISTING PROCESSES AND PRODUCTS. Research work leading to the improvement of existing processes and products constitutes one of the main activities of the research
Typical setup in a modern organic research laboratory at Du Pont’s Experimental Station near Wilmington. This apparatus 4s designed for carrying out distillations whereby various organic materials .are separated and purified.
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ten manufacturing departments. It is the “breadsearch of these departments for maintaining position in the chemical-consuming industries which we serve. Even before the turn of the century, when the company manufactured only explosives, the policy was to sell a t low prices in order to develop large volume. This policy has since been followed without deviation. As a corollary, it has had an important influence upon the research program, in that i t has required continuing work on the major products of the company to reach the lowest manufacturing cost consistent with high quality. About forty years ago a technical section was organized as part of the Explosives Sales Division. The purpose was to have highly trained technical men supplement the explosives salesmen in rendering service to customers with special problems, and to teach the safest, most effective, and most economical methods of putting explosives to work. As a result of this service, large economies were effected in the use of explosives by the consuming industries. Each of our manufacturing departments today has technical sales service t o help the consumer in the most efficient use of Du Pont products. I n some of the departments this service has been highly developed-for example, in the sale of dyes, textile finishes, detergents, rubber chemicals, petroleum chemicals, and a number of other products. Within the Organic Chemicals Department is a so-called Technical Laboratory where small machinery is installed for the purpose of studying different kinds of commercial dyeing, printing, and finishing of textiles, and the application of dyestuffs and finishing agents to paper and leather. Illustrative of this type of service are the two vat-dyeing processes recently developed in the Technical Laboratory. While vat dyes have long been recognized for their extreme fastness to light and laundering, their application has been limited for the most part to cotton and viscose process rayon. This has been due to the fact that conventional processes had a deleterious effect on wool and silk, and because of other technical difficulties incident to the dyeing of such fabrics. Du Pont’s new vat-dyeing prooernes are designed to assist in avoiding these difficulties and to
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First step in making nylon at Seaford, Del., is evaporation of water from the chemicals that are shipped from 6elle, W. Va. N y l o n intermediates are pumped into these huge tanks to begin the processing that turns them into strong, elastic, synthetic fibers and other materials,
make possible the use of fast vat colors on a much wider variety of materials than was previously possible, including fine woolen and rayon fabrics and blends of various natural and synthetic fibers. Another illustration of the company’s technical service is the process developed some time ago by the Electrochemicals Department for the continuous bleaching of cotton goods at unprecedented speeds. This new process not only hastens bleaching but also makes possible precise control of the entire operation, with resultant uniformity in color and appearance. Hailed as outstanding contributions to the finishing of fabrics, these new dyeing and bleaching processes have been made avail able to the textile industry without cost, as part of the company’s technical service, the aim of which is to develop improved processes both as regards speed and the efficient use of chemicals. These examples are sufficient to indicate that the sales-service organizations of our manufacturing departments, comprising highly trained technicaI men, perform an important function in helping the consumer to obtain the best results. PVIoreover, these Organizations constitute a valuable line of communication between the consumer and the research and production divisions. This information is of great assistance to the research chemist who studies the modification of a product to fit the needs of the consumer. There seems to be no finality to research directed to improvement in quaIity and reduction of manufacturing costs, and the results of this kind of research are far-reaching. Every improvement in quality means that purchasers receive a better product. Every reduction in cost means that more purchasers can buy those products. This combination of improved quality and lowered cost, wherever i t appears in American industry, is and has been a contribution of the first magnitude to raising our standard of iiving in peace and to the winning of ultimate victory in war. DEVELOPMENT OF NEW PRODUCTS. T o maintain the company’s contribution to an expanding economy, research directed to t h e development of new products is carried out by all the
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manufacturing departments. It is the principal means by -which a department can expand into new lines of business. The chemical industry is replete with examples of p r o d u c t s w h i c h w e r e entrenched in public favor for a short time, only to be replaced by others of better performance and, frequently, lower cost. Chemical science is so complex that there are often many ways in the hands of the chemist to achieve the same result. For example, we have many instances of new dyes, improved in some important characteristic such as fastness t o washing or fastness to light, that make serious inroads into the markets of old e s t a b l i s h e d products. Orer a period of years we have seen how the vat dyes, characterized by excellent fastness to light and washing, have come to replace the older azo dyes. S e w synthetic resins have made possible the formulation of finishes vastly buperior in durability to the older, conventional drying-oil types. There are many examples of this type of product obsolescencse. The chemical business cannot progress without research di rected to the development of new products. The effectiveness of this kind of research is indicated by the fact that 46’% of the gross sales of the D u Pont Company in 1942 consisted of products which either did not exist in 1928 or were not then manufactured in large commercial quantities. F v m a u f E N T A L RESEARCH.Research of this kind wa3 started in 1927 by C. hf. A. Stine, during his tenure as chemical director, with the object of establishing or discovering new scientific facta nithout regard to immediate commercial use. It is thus distinguished from applied research, which uses previously established scientific facts in the solution of practical problems. It was felt a t that time that university research, while very valuable, was not sufficient to fill the existing gaps in scientific knowledge of importance t o the fields of activity of the company. Research was therefore initiated in colloid chemistry, physical chemistry, organic chemistry, and physics. This was the first formal program to be carried out by a group of Du Pont scientist,s specifically assigned to fundamental research. T o preserve continuity of effort, the fundamental research group was organized as part of the Chemical Department. Over a period of years fundamental research has grown steadily, and although relatively small in volume compared to the research activities of our manufacturing departments, it has become one of the most valuable phases of research work in laying the foundat,ion for new lines of applied research. COLLATERAL RESEARCH ORGANIZATIONS
Research within the company is by no means restricted to the purely chemical field. Collateral research organizations within other departments have been and are of great value to the coinPanY. Studies on the design of chemical CHEMICALENGINEERING. process equipment and on the selection of proper materials of construction have necessarily been carried on since the original undertaking of chemical manufacturing operations. But in 1929
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a group was set up by Dr. Stine a t the Experimental Station, as part of the Chemical Department’s fundamental research organization, to devote its entire attention to research in chemical engineering. I t s objective was the development of more knowledge concerning the important unit processes of chemical engineering. The information developed by transfer, fluid flow, absorption, distillation, tions has been of great value, particularly in the design of new plants and modifications of established operations. Incidentally, the results of much of this work have been made available to the industry through numerous published papers. MECHANICALENGINEERING. As the Company’s operations became diversified, machines were developed for the particular job, either in cooperation with equipment manufacturers, or independently. Entry into the fields of plastics, rayon, cellophane, photographic film, and nylon demanded specially designed machines. Development of special machines was n in a formal way about 1935 by setting up a machi group within the Industrial Engineering Division of the Engineering Department. The scope of this work has recently been extended by the establishment of a separate Mechanical Development Laboratory. Engineering research has not only been instrumental in bringing chemical developments from the test-tube stage to the overthe-counter stage with a minimum of delay, but also has contributed greatly to cost reduction. I n the latter connection it is of interest that research and development carried out since World War I by Du Pont engineers and chemists in connection with the manufacture of strong nitric acid, smokeless powder, TNT, and tetryl have resulted in savings to the Government of more than 600 million dollars in construction costs alone. A large part of this saving resulted from improvements in manufacturing processes which led to great increases in the capacity of the first units installed during the present war, making unnecessary the construction of plants initially regarded as essential to fulfillment of the nation’s military requirements. HASKELL LABORATORY OF INDUSTRIAL TOXICOLOGY. This important collateral research organization was established in 1935 as an integral part of the company’s Medical Division. Many of the chemicals essential to industry are toxic. Exact knowledge, however, concerning degree of toxicity, how the compound enters the body, its manner of action, and how to treat possible injuries or illness arising from contact with the toxic material, makes it possible to set up protective measures that will eliminate hazards or reduce them to the minimum. The Haskell Laboratory was established to develop information of this type concerning products made or used by the D u Pont Company. It is designed to develop information to aid in protecting the workers not only in our own plants, but also in the plants of those who use Du Pont products. Chemicals and other D u Pont materials used in various consumer products also are studied. For example, long before nylon hosiery went on
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the market, thousands of “patch tests” were made on volunteers among our employees t o determine if nylon fabrics had any deleterious effect. Nylon was not announced until repeated practical wear tests had demonstrated this product to be wholly innocuous. DU PONT RESEARCH POLICY
MAJORACTIVITY. It is a tradition of long standing that research is a major company activity. It is looked upon as a vital function. It flourishes because of an atmosphere of appreciation, encouragement, liberality, and patience. Never was this attitude better illustrated than during the depression days of 1932, when every department of the company was economy-minded. During this period I had occasion to talk with Lammot du Pont, then president of the company, about the work of the Chemical Department. He inquired about the progress of fundamental research. I told h i 6 that transfers to other parts of the company had reduced the number of men devoted to this work. He asked if I had sought to replace these men. I replied in the negative. His comment perfectly illustrates the company’s approach to research: “YOU know it is more important to carry out research than to pay dividends.” As president from 1926 to 1940 and in his present capacity as chairman of the board, Zanimot du Pont has ever been a staunch supporter of research. I n 1929 a particularly large expansion in research began, when expenditures showed a 300% increase over 1928. Since that time the company’s research organization has shown continuous growth, with the exception of 1932 and 1933 when there was a slight regression from the 1929 level. Since 1940 W. S. Carpenter, Jr., has also supported the policy of a strong research program. Today, Du Pont’s research organization comprises thirty-three research laboratories, with a technical and nontechnical personnel of about 3500 men and women. CONTINUITY.The fortunes of a research organization should not follow a profit and loss curve. It is accepted as axiomatic that
Operators in the Dolvmerization unit of a neoDrene Dlant control chemical reactions with the aid of recording’instrumentr.
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Film of neoprene leaving the drier. This polymer was the first general-purpose synthetic rubber to be developed.
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various abilities can be focused on a single problem, and through its ability and willingness to venture, without hope of immediate return, sums far beyond the reach of any lone inventor, modern industry advances human knowledge in a way that was utterly impossible before its advent. Beyond that, it converts the newly gained knowledge into a higher standard of living far more quickly and on a larger scale. The early inventor, working without aid or backing, many times met rebuffs, discouragement, and ridicule. Today, the achievements of modern industrial research have led the American people not only to accept the new, but to expect and demand it. The age-old skepticism of the average American toward the new and unheard-of has been largely eliminated by a tidal wave of invention and development. OUTSTANDING RESEARCH ACHIEVEMENTS
satisfactory progress in research over a period of years cannot be maintained if research expenditures are materially reduced when business goes through a temporary slump and increased when business improves. Both neoprene and nylon were “children” of the depression. STRONG CENTnAL RESEARCH DEPARTMENT. Part of the scheme of D u Pont research is to maintain a strong central Chemical Department devoted to long-range investigations. The primary concern of the Chemical Department is the future. Its chief purposes are to help provide new opportunities and msure future growth. HIGH-QUALITY PERSONNIL.Since the most valuable research asset is good men, the policy of the company is to staff its laboratories with the best qualified men available. As stated recently by James B. Conant, “Ten second-rate men are no substitute for one first-class man.” This has been the experience of Du Pont’s research organization. TEAMWORK. Another feature is teamwork, not only on the part of men in a particular laboratory, but also as regards interdepartmental cooperation. The Chemical Department helps to coordinate the research activities of the several manufacturing departments. To prevent unnecessary duplication, experience in one department is brought to bear on problems of other departments. This, then, is the organization and policy of D u Pont research. What such research means t o the American people in war and in peace is clear. Perhaps less evident is the basic fact that has brought this type of organization into being. I n the early days of applied research it was possible for an individual to carry in his head a large part of the technical information he was likely to need in the course of his investigations. ‘Today the situation is different. Most of the obvious and easily attained objectives have been reached. Our body of scientific knowledge has become so large and complex as to be beyond the grasp of any individual. Industrial research meets this situation. Through its ability to employ an adequate staff of highly trained research workers, whose
DYE INDUSTRY. I n 1916 the D u Pont Company decided t o enter the manufacture of dyes, with the encouragement of the Government and representatives of the textile industry. The United States wm almost wholly dependent upon German dyes at the outbreak of World War I. When the British blockade was imposed, employment of millions of American workmen in the dye-consuming industries was threatened. To make as rapid progress as possible, an agreement was made with the British firm Levinstein, Limited, which had manufactured a few intermediates and dyes prior to the war. After the outbreak of war, however, Levinstein operated a former German-owned indigo plant which was modern in construction. This arrangement was very helpful, particularly in enabling the company to avoid the long time that would have been necessary for the development of an indigo process. In the manufacturing process a thin film of dried neoprene is twisted into a rope and cut into short lengths for shipping.
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I n starting the dye business, Du Pont was con
and in many cases made no reference to the preferred methods of manufacture of the products covered by the patents. D u Pont started the development of its dye business on a broad scale, realizing that to have a well-rounded business i t was necessary t o engage in the manufacture of all important classes of colors. Progress, however, was slow at first because no one in the research or production divisions had any previous experience in dye manufacture. It was therefore necessary in the early years of this venture to concentrate all efforts on establishing the business on a firm foundation. From the beginning it was recognized that the manufacture of dyes could serve as the backbone of a synthetic organic chemical industry. Accordingly, in the early twenties research work was begun on rubber accelerators. This was the beginning of the period of diversification in organic chemical manufacture, and research was pursued in two directions: (1) to expand the lines of dyes, and (2) to find new products to be used by the chemical processing industries. Today the Organic Chemicals Department, in addition to intermediates and dyes, is making rubber chemicals such as accelerators and antioxidants, petroleum chemicals such as gasoline antioxidants and extreme-pressure lubricant bases, tetraethyllead by the Kraus method for the Ethyl Corporation, synthetic camphor, textile finishes, detergents, wetting agents, seed disinfectants, perfume bases, photographic chemicals, synthetic vitamin D, neoprene, and many other organic chemicals. Over two thousand materials are now manufactured by this department. The success of this undertaking can be attributed to four import a n t factors:
1. The expenditure of large amounts of capital during the many profitless years. At the end of the first five years the company had invested 22 million dollars in plants and working capital, and had suffered operating losses to the extent of $18,000,000. 2. Close cooperation of research, production, and sales. 3. Excellent quality of technical ersonnel and operators. 4. Most important of all, an aiiding faith on the part of Pierre, IrBnPe, and Lammot du Pont that this venture was fundamentally sound, and that the organization could put this undertaking on a successful basis. NEOPRENE.I n view of previous unsuccessful attempts over a period of many years to make a satisfactory synthetic rubber, the development of neoprene is an interesting research accomplishment. I n the fall of 1925,W. F. Harrington, now a vice president but then general manager of the Dyestuffs Department, indicated the economic position of the department was beginning to take a favorable change that would permit a start in pioneering work. He felt that we should endeavor to make a product that would have a large potential outlet. The problem of synthetic rubber was proposed, because it was considered to be one of the outstanding problems challenging organic chemists a t that time. From an economic standpoint synthetic rubber was of interest because this country was consuming more than half the world’s output of natural rubber, and was whojly dependent upon foreign sources of supply. As a result of the Stevenson Export Restriction Plan, the price of rubber had risen during 1925 to more than one dollar a pound. Therefore, all factors on the economic side were favorable and encouraged work on this problem. On the technical side, however, the prospects of solution were not so favorable. Before the first World War the English and Germans had tried to make synthetic rubber without success. When this line of research was proposed, there was a division of opinion as to the wisdom of undertaking this work, especially in view of the failure of German chemists. Dr. Ilarrington decided, however, to back the recommendations of the rcsearch
Sewing a nylon flare parachute i s a joining operation in which sixteen panels, or gores, are sewn together.
group, and to him should be given credit for encouraging the initiation of this project. The rest of the story has been told many times. Suffice it t o say that, thanks to the support by management over a period of years, Du Pont research chemists in 1930 discovered t h a t monovinylacetylene, which the late Father Nieuwland had prepared in the course of his research on acetylene, could be converted to chloroprene (2-chloro-l,3-butadiene) by treating it with hydrogen chloride in the presence of a suitable catalyst. But more important, they discovered that chloroprene polymerized readily t o produce a synthetic rubber of high quality. The resulting polymer, neoprene, was the first general-purpose synthetic rubber to be developed. While quantitatively this product occupies a secondary position in the synthetic rubber program, chiefly because of a shortage of electric power for calcium carbide manufacture, neoprene is today serving numerous important military needs that no other available material can fill. MOISTUREPROOF CELLOPHANE.This development is a research achievement worthy of mention because of its profound influence on the packaging of many commodities. Shortly after Du Pont acquired the cellulose film business of La Cellophane in 1923,it was realized that the transparent film as then manufactured had definite limitations. The original “plain” cellophane, so called to distinguish it from the moistureproof variety later developed in our laboratories, was decorative and had a certain utility as a wrapping material; but since it was permeable t o water vapor, it was not well suited as a wrapper for cigars, cigarets, and a vast number of uses involving foods whose taste, texture, and freshness depended on maintaining the original moisture content. Research was started, and in 1927 this defect was overcome by the development of a moistureproof laoquer which is applied to both sides of the cellophane as an extremely thin film-only about
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In these autoclaves nylon polymer i s created.
The
control panel signals the progress of each of the stages of polymerization.
0.00005 inch thick. The lacquer owes its effectiveness to the presence of an amount of suitablc wax so small that, if spread out alone on the cellophane, it would give a film only a few rriillionths of an inch thick. For the past, fev years more than 75% of the total cellophane production l i x been the moistureproof variety. This research achievement made cellophane a product known throughout t,he civilized world and liaoing thousands of uses. Since this development resulted in a tremendous increase in production, it helped to bring the price of cellophane down to about one fourt,h its 1927 figure. AfiinioxI.2 .4ND OTHER PE0Dr:C‘l.S O F EIIGII-~’RESSURE SYNTHESIS. I n 1926 Du Pont undertook the fixabioii of atmospheric nitrogen through the synthesis of ammonia, primarily to supply the company’s needs for nit,ric acid. 4 t first the capacity of the plant was small, efficiency vias low, and performance of equipment uncertain. Through research, however, new methods were perfected for tlie preparation and purification of the nitrogenhydrogen mixture, and improved catalysts were developed. Also, equipment for use under special and severe operating conditions was designed, and the technique of handling gases under pressures up to 1000 atmospheres, over a wide temperature range, was mastered. The business of this depaltmerit was built upon a technology based on the use of water gas, for t’lie production of which coal is the principal raw material. The availability of water gas, combined with knowledge of catalytic high-pressure technjques, led to the development of a process for methanol manufacture, and this operation is now carried out on a scale comparable with that for ammonia. I n addition, many other products are made by entirely new industrial processes, with new types of catalysts, and under pressures which years ago would not have been considered practicahle. Among the products of this new technology me adipic acid and hexamethylenediamine (intermediates in nylon manufacture) and ethylene glycol. Over the past ten years there ha> been a rapid increase in the number of products made from water gas, including important ammonia derivatives, aliphatic acids and esters, higher alcohols, and hydrogenated products. Over a hundred items are now
manufactured by our Ammonia Department, which had its beginning in the fixation of nitrogen. There is no other group of operations within the company in which engineering plays such an important part, on account of the high pressures involved and continuity of processes. The remarkable success of this department is a tribute to the close cooperation of the chemist and the engineer. DUCONITROCELLULOSE LACQUERS. Few modern chemical developments have had more far-reaching implications than quickdrying, durable, low-viscosity nitrocellulose lacquers. I n 1913 several weeks were required to paint the average automobile. By 1922, although the time had been substantially reduced, the paint shop still remained the bottleneck of mass production. I n 1923, howe\-er, the quest for quick-drying, durable finishes culminated in the development of Duco. Although nitrocellulose of inherently low-viscosity characteristics had previously been known, Duco represented the first practical method ever devised for making a durable pyroxylin lacquer. While these new finishes required a lowviscosity nitrocellulose, this was by no means the complete answer to the problem. Formulation of lacquers having the durability required for outdoor use involved a vast amount of experimentation with many different gums, resins, solvents, plasticizers, and pigments, with durability test panels exposed all the way from New Jersey to Florida. Before a complete range of colors was developed, this program demanded seven years of intensive research. By reducing from days to hours the time required to finish a car, this research achieveAent aided materially in the mass production of automobiles, which in turn resulted in low prices. KYLOS. The latest outstanding achievement of L)u Pont re= search is nylon. This product, which had its genesis in fundamental research under the immediate direction of the late Wallace H. Carothers, made its appearance a t a most opportune time -shortly before the war in the Orient cut off further importations of silk and hog bristlrs. Since 1941 nylon has proved of great value in parachute fabrics, glider tow ropes, and cords for the fabric of tires used on our big bombers such as the B-29 Superfortress. It is now becoming increasingly important in the south-
INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
February, 1945
west Pacific for tents, ponchos, hammocks, insect netting and shoestrings because i t is resistant to the fungi which cause mildew and rot, and also t o termites which are difficult to combat in the tropics. I n the form of tapered bristles, it is used also in making paint brushes for the armed services. The story of nylon has been told many times. I should, however, like to use this development to illustrate two points which have an important bearing on D u Pont research-the v a h e of teamwork and the importance of semiworks or pilot-plant operations. The development of manufacturing processes for nylon intermediaties, the polymer, and yarn called for a greater degree of coordinated teamwork than any other project ever undertaken by the D u Pont Company. Each and every step of the nylon process, and the equipment for it, were worked out on a semiworks scale with such thoroughness that, except for size, the first commercial plant which went into operation early in 1940 was practically a duplicate of the pilot plant. CONCLUSION
Research becomes of service in the ordinary walks of life when it can be translated into processes or products which contribute to raising the scale of living, to the improvement of health, to the promotion of industry and agriculture, and to the defense, The greatstoreof scientific knowledge which has been accumulated in the past through the careful, painstaking investigations of countless scientists becomes of value to SOciety when research points the way to harnessing it to a practical application. It should be emphssized, however, that the research organization is only part of the team necessary to bring the fruits of seientific work to the service of mankind. It requires the wisdom and courage of management to make the investment, a capable engineering organization to design the plant, an able and experienced production Organization to make material of marketable quality and suitable cost, and a sales organization to develop markets. In no small measure the succesg of Du Pont research depends upon the capabilities of other parts of the organization,
Some modern research apprretus et the Experimen-
o E, I. du Pont de Nemours & Com-
tal Station
pany, near Wilmington, Del.
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for without them the developnieuts which have contributed so ompany could not have been brought From the colonial days down to the present, our patent system has been a great stimulus to research, and an incentive to the creation of new products and processes. Large expenditures such as were involved in developing neoprene and nylon, for example, were justified because of the patent protection i t was possible to establish. Were i t not for this protection, the stimulus to research and invention would be greatly diminished, whether by a lone individual, by small business, or by so-called big business. One other element should be mentioned. It is public support and favor, which must be earned. It must be earned by operating in the public interest. Without it the team effort is foredoomed. Out of the experience of many years I can say that our company’s activities are uniformly motivated by a clear sense of its responsibility t o the American people. At present all research efforts are concentrated on winning the war, but as soon as peace comes all branches of the chemical industry will go f I m a r d with greatly hWeased X%search programs in an effort to make up for the lost time, although faced with a serious shortage of well-trained chemists-a shortage, 1fear, t h a t will be felt for a number of years. While war accelerates the utilization of existing scientific information, it almost eliminatea fundamental remarch. Since World War I, the chemical industry has made remarkable progress, due in important measure to the friendly attitude of the Government toward research. Granted a continuation of this attitude, organized research will go on creating new products, for what remains t o be done is far greater than anything that has been accomp!ished in the past. I n the words of Pasteur: “Take interest, I implore you, in dwellings which one designates by the expressive those sa term: L atories. Demand that they be multiplied, that they be adorned; these are the temples of the future-temples of wellbeing and of happiness. There it is that humanity grows greater, stronger, better.”
Filling Capsules with Propadrine (a Brand Phenylpropanolamine) Hydrochloride in the Laboratories of Sharp & Dohme, Inc. of
