Nickel and High-Nickel Alloys

1990

INDUSTRIAL A N D ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY

(3) Bardgett, W. E., and Reeve, L., J. Iron SteelInst. (London), 163, 277-94 (1949). (4) Bartz, M. H., and Rawlins, C. E., PPtideum Processing, 4, 898901,904-6 (1949). (5) Berk, A. A., Proc. Natl. Dist. Heating Assoc., 38, 273-87 (1947). (6) Brown, A. F. C., and Edmonds, R., Inst. Mech. Engrs. (London), Proc., 159, 11-14 (1948). (7) Butlin, K. R., Adanis, Mary E., and Thomas, Margaret, Nuture, 163,26-7 (1949). (8) Darken, L. S., and Smith, R. P., Corrosion, 5, No. 1, 1-10 (1949). Eagan, T. E., and James, J. D., Iron A g e , 164, No. 24 (1040). Gagnebin, A. P., Millis, K. D., and Pilling, N. B., Ibid., 163,No. 7 (1949). Gurrissen, J., J. Iron Steel ins^. (London), 162, 18-28 (1949). Harding, A. G.. Chem. Eng., 56, No. 9, 116 (1949). Harlow, W. F., Engineer. 187, 271-3 (1949). Hopkins, E. S., Tech. Assoc. Papers, Ser. 31, 399-402 (1948). Hoxeng, R. B., and Prutton, C. F., Corrosion, 5, No. 10, 330-8 (1949). Hoyt, S. L., Metal Progress, 55, No. 6, 821--ti (1949). Humble, H. A., Corrosion, 5, No. 9, 292-300 (1949). Kerensky, 0. A,, Engineer. 187, 238-241 (1949). Kostenetz, V. I . , J. Tech. Phys. (U.S.S.H.), 16, No. 5, 515-54, (1946): English summary, Metal Progress, 55, No. 1. 82, 84, 86 (1949). Kuniansky, Max, Iiun Worker (fall 1949 issue). LaQue, F. L.. and Mogerman, W. D., World Od, 129, 153-8 (1949).

Vol. 42, No. 10

Lanabee, C. P., and Snyder, 8. C., IND. EKG.CHEM.,41, 2122-4 (19491. \

~

~

~

.

,

_

McBrian, R., et al., Master Boiler Makers' Aasoc., O&. Proc.. 220-35 (1948).

Mears, R. B., and Snyder, S. C., IND.ENG.CHEM.,39, 1219-34 (1947). Ibid., 40, 1798-800 (1948).

Mortogh, Henton (to Brit. Cast Iron Rosearch Assoc.), U. S. Patents 2,488,511, 2,488,512 (Nov. 15, 1949). Palmer, W. G., J . Iron Steel Inst. (London),163, 421-31 (1949). Payne, W. G . , and Joaohim, W. F., SOC.Aiitoniotive Engrs., Quart. Trans., 3, 61-6 (1949).

Powell, S. T., and Von Lossberg, L. G., Corrosion, 5, No. 3, 71-8 (1949).

Ripling, E. J., Am. Soc. Metula, gi.epl.int 1 (1949). Rodgers, R. R., and Stewarts, If'. R. Q., Can. Miniug Met. Bull.. NO.445,218-21 (1949).

Rozsa, J. T., Iron A g e , 164, No. 25 (1949). Spitz, A. W., Chern. Eng.,56, No. 1, 238 (1949). Ibid., No. 9, 229. 'Il'arnock, F. V., and Brennan, d. B., Inst. M r c h . Etrgrs. (London), Proc.. 159, 1-10 (1948).

Young, K. B., Nichols, H. J., and Solan, M. J., Welding J . (A'.

Y.), 28, 153-7 (1949).

Ziegler, N. A,, Meinhart, W.t.,and Goldsmith, J. R., A m . SOC. Metcrlx, preprint 6 (1949). RECEIVED August 7, 1950.

Nickel and High-Nickel Alloys H. 0, TEEPLE, The I n t e r n a t i o n a l N i c k e l C o m p a n y , Znc., N e w Y o r k , N . Y .

T

presentannual review of published references to the use of nickel and high-nickel alloys as materials of construction iu similar to the previous one (132). Alloys containing about 40% or more of nickel or appreciable quantities of cobalt comprise the materials considered in this portion of the review. As previously, the subject matter is divided into three general classifications: development of new alloys or improvements in present ones and studies of their physical properties; developments in the fabrication of these alloys, including welding, forming, and heat treatments; and developments in the applications of these alloys for both high temperature and corrosion resistance with particular reference to the chemical and process industries. COMYOSlTIONS OF ALLOYS

A number of new alloys were reported, most of them designed to achieve improved mechanical or physical properties over those currently available. Kinsey and Stewart (f 83) described preliminary studies on nickel-aluminum-molybdenum alloys to develop an alloy for use under stress a t 815' C. (1500' F.) and upward. Griffiths (142) reported improvements in high temperature performance of nickel-cobalt base alloys through suitable heat treatments. Additional modifications are reported (36, f22,I W ) leading to improvements in properties of these alloys. Doyle (109)specified improved compositions relating to nickel-, cobalt-, and chromium-base alloys for high temperature service, The alloys consist of 10 to 72% nickel, 10 to 39.5% cobalt, 15 to 20% chromium, 2.7 to 5.7% aluminum, 1.55 to 3.5% titanium, and specified ranges of silicon, titanium, manganese, columbium, molybdenum, vanadium, tantalum, or tungsten either singly or in combination. Heat treatment is also specified. Scott and Gordon (263) described a precipitation hardening austenitic alloy composed of 15 to 35% uickel, 20 to 40% cobalt, 17 to 22%

chromiuni, 3 tu 15% molybdenum, 1 to 9% tungsten, 0.5 to 3% mauganese, 0.1 to 0.7% silicon, less than 0.2% carbon, and the balance iron. Age-hardening heat treatments we described. Craighead et al. (99) reported binary alloys of titanium with nickel and cobalt and ternary alloys of titanium-chromium alloys with nickel and cobalt among others. Charts on properties and diagrams are included. Allen (2) described an alloy suitable for electrical resistor elements consisting of 10 to 30% chromium, silver and aluminum, each in amounts within the range of 3 to 5% but total amount within range of 6 to 8%, and the balance nickel. An improved electrical resistance material composed of oxides of manganese, cobalt, nickel, and copper, with manganese forming from 50 to 60% of the total metal present,, is report.ed (36). A specific composition is claimed in which the atomic proportions are 50% manganese, 16% nickel, 30% cobalt, and 4% copper. Kubaschewski and Goldbeck (f89)studied the mechanism of the oxidation of nickel-platinum alloys containing 0 to 90 atomic % platinum. Various conclusions drawn are believed to be generally applicable to other similar alloys. Elsea and McBride (111) investigated the influence of nitrogen, iron, or nickel additions upon the transformation and precipitation reactions occurring in cobalt-rich cobalt-chromium alloys. I t was found that these elements tend to promote formnt,ion of t.he gamma phase. Improvements relating to electrical resistance elements are described (SI),together with a componition of an alloy of low temperature coefficient of resistance, which contains 10 to 30% chromium, 1 to 4y0aluminum, and the balance nickel. A nickel-base alloy is described (55) suitable for use in spheroidal cast iron. A process is described (60) wherein gold is permanently bonded to a nonferrous metal base. The gold is welded to a pure nickel harrier which is subwquent,ly silver-

October 1950

INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY

brazed to the nonferrous base which may be brass, Monel, cupronickel, or beryllium-copper, Campbell et al. (91) described conditions and apparatus for applying coatings of the refractory metals including the platinurn group metals, carbides, nitrides, borides, silicides, and oxides by vapor phase deposition. Properties of the deposits are described, and mention is madc of high temperature protective coatings. Micrographs of typiral deposits inrlude tantalum on nickel. Nachtman (216)described a method of forming smooth homogeneous alloy coatings on ferrous base metal by electroplating layers of the alloying metals and by heat treating to form the alloy by diffusion. Coatings such as Monel and nickel with tin, zinc, platinum, or chromium are cited as examples. Michel (411 ) discussed the role of cobalt in special steels, such aa high speed and magnet steels, as well as in alloys with special physical properties, such as Invar, Vitallium, and others. Went (288)described a low expansion alloy for glass-to-metal seals. The alloy contains about 26.5 to 29.6% nickel, 17.5% cobalt, 0.5% manganese, 0.25 to 5 % copper, and the balance iron. Hunt (167) described the use of two iron-nickel alloys (54% iron-i6% nickel and 58% iron42% nickel) in the manufacture of radio valves where ceramic-metal seals are required, A denture alloy comprising 30 to 40% nickel, 20 to 35% chromium, and from 20 to 3Oy0cobalt, the base alloy being modified by 2 to 25% gold, was described by Tifft (273). Supcrmalloy, a new magnetic material, according to Fitsgerald-Lee (119), contains about 70% nickel, 15% iron, 5% molybdenum, and 0.5% manganese. The alloy has an initial permeability of over 100,000, is melted in vacuo, and is poured in an atmosphere of helium or nitrogen a t atmospheric pressure. A new nickel alloy containing no copper and free of iron (46, 48) is known as Waukesha Metal Alloy No. 23. Good machinability and good resistance to corrosion and galling are claimed. Hills and Dufour (168)described a process involving the selective reduction of nickel content of oxide ores containing iron and nickel by utilizing reducing gases in contact with the ore as it passes through a furnace. The sources of nickel, its extraction, refining metallography, fabricated forms, applications, production and consumption figures, and its chemical, physical, mechanical, and corrosion-resisting properties and other properties are reviewed (89) by the National Bureau of Standards. An article entitled "3000 Nickel Alloys" (80) gives a brief historical sketch of the development of nickel-containing alloys. Brennen (82)in a report on the investigation of foreign electrical batteries used during wartime gave detailed information on nickel-cadmium batteries. Bryant (84) described a process for cobalt refining by separation of cobalt from copper and iron. A method is presented by Bennett (71)whereby nickel powder may be stabilized as produced by the evaporation of mercury from a nickel-mercury amalgam. The method includes contact of the nickel with carbon dioxide prior to contact with osygena PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS

A considerable amount of investigation of physical and mechanical properties of nickel-containing alloys wm done during the year, as evidenced hy the number of papers written. Salpeter (249)reviewed carefully the theory of magnetism t18 applied to permanent magnets, including Langevin's classioal theory of paramagnetism and Weiss's theory of ferromagnetism. Magnetostriction, magnetic anisotropy, and hysteresis were also discussed. Jeilinghaus and Schlechtweg (176)tested the validity of the Webs-Langevin law of the variation of magnetization with temperature by comparison of Weiss and Forrer's measurements on nickel. Brailsford et aE. (81) briefly reviewed development of the ferromagnetic theory. Special requirements of transformer steels are considered along with nickel-iron alloys. Powder metallurgy with respect to permanent magnets was discussed. Ward (283) investigated the phase aonditions by magnetic

1991

analyses of a representative selection of commercial magnetic materials. He found that in alloys of the Alnico type there is a reversible phase up to the Curie point. A 35% cobalt-6% tungsten-6% chromium alloy was specifically discussed. Stoner and Rhodes (266)discussed in detail experimental results on tbe adiabatic temperature changes accompanying the magnetization of ferromagnetics in low and modrrate fields. Detailed analyses are given for iron, cobalt, and nivkel with respect to thermal changes in magnetixation. Javitz (174)reported that magnrtic recordings on tape or wire can be used to control automatically a complete sequence of machine tool operations. 18-8 stainless wire and erasing heads of Mu metal, Hy-Mu 80, or 50-50 iron-nickel alloy or 80% nickeliron alloy base are used. Rothery and An (246) reported a very pronounced asymmetry in the dynamic hysteresis loop of a 47% nicke1-50% iron-l% aluminum tape wound around a core. It was found that the core acts as a storage device after excitation of the core by a large direct current force followed by a smaller alternating current excitation. Littman (196) found the perineability is strongly dependent upon crystal orientation. Among the alloys described is 48% nickel-iron. Crede and Martin (101) observed that single-crystal magnetic properties were closely approached in a polycrystalline 50% nicke1-50% iron alloy by the development of a favorable grain orientation. By a modification of the normal magnetization, a nearly geometrically true rectangular shape of the hysteresis loop was produced. McClure ($01) discuased core materials and dry-type rectifiers for magnetic amplifiers, which included Hypernik (50% nickel50% iron), Hypernik V (50% nicke1-50% iron), and MoPermalloy (79% nickel-l7% iron+% molybdenum). Charta Nhowing transfer curves for these several alloys are given. Went (288) investigated the relationship of the thermal expansion, Curie temperature, and lattice spacing of homogeneous ternary nickel-iron alloys. He found close relationship between changes in Curie temperature and expansion anomaly for different alloys but no direct relation between Curie temperature and lattice spacing. Butler (90) determined the distribution of flux density in ferromagnetic (nickel-iron) laminae a t various instants. Results afford an explanation of difficulties encountered in attempts to demagnetize nickel-iron alloys completely. Weil (286)found that the variation in coercivity of reduced nickel (from the oxalate) was a function of temperature by suitable measurements made between -253" C. (-425' F.) and f150" C. (+302O F.). Schindler and Pugh (2661)determined the Hall effect in commercially pure nickel a t fields well above saturation. Robinson (848) discussed magnetic materials such as Ticonal, Alnico V, and Alcomax and their applications to low frequency power apparatus and high frequency radio and audio apparatus. Bragg (80)described many properties of magnetic materials. Fraunberger (184) observed that the permeability of nickel a t high frequencies (20 mc. per second) decreases to unity and, therefore, the spontaneous magnetieation disappears a t tl temperature of 50' to 100" C. above the Curie point. Rathenau and Custers (986),in work completed in 1941 but not published because of the war, studied the secondary recrystallization of face-centered nickeliron alloys with special reference to the alloy containing about 48 weight % of nickel. Schmid and Thomas (862) studied the structure by x-ray methods of 50% ni~kel-507~ iron alloy cold rolled from 6 to 0.35 mm. Testa showed that tensile strength is little affected by orientation of the grain but modulus of elasticity is lowest a t the angle of 45' to the rolling direction. They also presented pole figures and x-ray diffraction patterns for a nickel-iron alloy containing 47.8% nickel after cold working 95% and annealing at 500' to 1040' C. (932' to 1904' F.). Wohlfarth ($90,800) described the theoretical background of collective electron t r e a t ment of ferromagnetism with reference to nickel-iron, nickel, cobalt, and nickel-copper alloys. A brief account is given of the magnetic properties of alloys of nickel with gold, zinc, aluminum,

1992


tin, antimony, chromium, manganese, palladium, and platinum. Gerlach (188) summarized magnetic studies with gold-nickel alloys containing 5 to 50% nickel. Curves are shown indicating the effect of temperature and effect of oomposition on Curie temperature. Fahlenbrach and Sixtus (116) listed permeability remanence, Curie temperatures, and electrical resistivity for various nickel-iron alloys with silicon, copper, and chromium. Knight (186) gave a description of dynamic-type investigations on nickel magnetostrictive oscillators where observations of metastable states were made. Curves are given showing variations of time in amplitude of motion with temperature. Epelboim and Marais (1 18)studied the distribution of permeability throughout the thickness of ferromagnetic alloys. Results are given for Permalloy (77% nickel-5% copper+% molybdenum) strip of various thicknesses. Gaugler (136) determined that composition and heat treatment affect properties of soft magnetic materials including iron-silicon steel, 45 to 50% nickel-iron, 75 to 81% nickel-iron alloys, ironcobalt alloys, and iron-nickel-cobalt alloys. Street and Wooley (267) reported some work on the AE effect (change in Young's modulus) of Alnico magnetic materials. Astbury (64) reported briefly the subject matter covered in a symposium in London on ferromagnetic materials. Geisler (187) described the structure and properties of permanent magnet alloys such as Cunico, Cunife, Alnico, cobalt-platinum, and iron-platinum. It is reported (17) that the crystal structure of Alnico 5DG is aligned in the direction of magnetization, enabling the use of smaller magnets, whereas Alnico 7 was developed specifically for applications where a high demagnetization force is present. Deveze (107) reported the results of the static stydy of the magnetostriction in iron-nickel alloys containing 36 to 100% nickel. Apert and Cabarat (68) investigated the internal friction of reversible ironnickel bars subjected to a longitudinal magnetic field. Curves were constructed for different nickel contents showing magnitudes of internal friction measured. Boulanger (79) discussed and evaluated test methods, techniques, and special apparatus pertaining to the study of internal friction of alloys. Results are shown for nickel-iron alloys, Armco iron, 80% nickel-20% chromium, and nickel-chromium-molybdenum steel. McCaig (900) measured the magnetostriction in various directions of blocks of permanent magnet alloys of the system iron-nickelaluminum-cobalt-copper prepared with columnar crystals. The experimental results agreed with those predicted theoretically. Shaw (266) reported new measurements of packing fractions of nickel isotopes: Ni", Nim, Ni41, N P , and N P . Siegbahn and Ghosh (966) studied the decay scheme for Ni*susing spectrometer and coincidence technique. The decay scbeme for Cues is also shown. Wilson and Curran (B6) investigated soft radiations by a proportional counter. This method applied to the detection of allowed positron spectrum of listed isotope NisB with a quoted life of 15 years. The existence of such positron spectrum is not confirmed, but a soft beta source wm found which can be identified &s N P , Thomas and Kurbatov (271) studied long-life isotopes of nickel activated a t the Oak Ridge National Laboratory of the Atomic Energy Commisaion. The study was made with a Geiger-Muller counter and with a cloud chamber, both mainly for the eminsion of protons. Maienschein and Meem (2006) performed coincidence experiment with Nibs, Ni", Agllo, and In"', and resulta are discwed. Hughes et al. (188) measured neutron capture cross sections a t an effective energy of 1 m.e.v. for 32 isotopes including oobalt and nickel. McCutcheon (802) reported investigations on the use of Corn and &as as sources for radiography. Details are given concerning handling of sources and checking of their intensity on receipt. The UBB of a C o w source on one side of a cupola and a Geiger-Mliller counter a~ detector on the other side for checking metd level in a oupola is reported. The journey of a oobalt needle is reported (61) and photographs illustrate how a needle of cobalt m o m from an Oak Ridge pile to a cancer patient. It is reported that the Co" atom turns into

Vol. 42, No. 10

an atom of nickel. Kennedy et al. (181) determined attenuation curves for lead, concrete, and steel necessary to achieve required protection from gamma-rays of Corn. Aebersold ( 1 ) discussed industrial applications of radioisotopes as engineering tools. Masumoto and Saito (8U9)measured Young's modulus of ternary alloys of cobalt-iron-chromium containing 50 to 90% cobalt and 0 to 20% chromium. Charts are presented showing results obtained. Honda and Shirakawa (168) measured Young's moduli of elasticity of single crystals of cobalt and nickel. It waa found that the relation between the elastic constants of nickel and of cobalt does not hold. Bennett and Davies (70) determined the variation of Young's modulus with temperature and data up to 600' C. (1110' F.) presented for commercial brasses, copper, mild steel, nickel, cobalt, Monel, 48% nickel-iron alloy, and a copper-gold alloy. Eash and Kihlgren (110) discussed the effect of composition on the properties and structure of cast Monel. Corson (98) presented results of tests conducted to determine the effect of hydrogen in cathode nickel. h o d impact, resistivity hardness, ductility, and tensile strength measurements were used. Summaries were presented (26) on properties of Monel, K Monel, nickel, Inconel, Nimonic 80, and Ni-Span C which render these alloys useful for spring material. Pawlek (228,229)gave detailed reviews with many references on mech&nical and physical properties of nickel and nickel alloys, including some cobalt-containing alloys. Woodard (301) used polarized light to study the microstructure of Monel during different stages of deformation. A study of the variations showed that individual grains were deformed in an extremely irregular flow pattern, some of the irregularity resulting from the restrictive action of neighboring grains. Schichtel (260) discussed age-hardened alloys and mentioned a nickel alloy containing 2% beryllium and 1% titanium m having high hardness and being very resistant to cavitation. Hitchcock (169) reviewed in a general way the methods used and the alloys, Monel, nickel, and Inconel, which are produced a t the Birmingham Works of the Henry Wiggin Company. The properties are listed (41) of a number of proprietary nickel alloys including Nimonic 75 and 80, Invar, Nilo, bimetallic strip, and various magnet alloys. Cardwell (93) studied the photoelectric and thermionic properties of spectroscopically pure nickel through a wide range of temperatures including the Curie temperature. A marked change occurs in the slope of the temperature-photoelectric current curve a t the Curie temperature. Other data on values of work functions of outgassed nickel are given. Bueche (87)measured optical constants for nickel, cobalt, iron, manganese, and cadmium. Reflectivities a t five different angles were determined. The metals were in the form of iilms evaporated and deposited on glass in vacuo. Reflectivity values are given for the visible spectrum and infrared to 2 . 6 ~ . Gwathmey et al. (147) reported the results of tests studying the influence of crystal plane of single crystals of aluminum, copper, gold, lead, nickel, silver, chromium, iron, cadmium, zinc, bismuth, tin, and indium on rates of five chemical processes important to the operation or manufacture of lubricated surfaces. These processes are oxidation in air, corrosion by oils, wetting of the surface by stearic acid, action of hot gases, and various electrochemical processes. The results in general show the process to vary with the plane in different degrees. Ovchinnikov (224) described a spectroscopic method for the qualitative detection of cobalt and nickel by spectrogram background radiation. Grube (14.4) presented tables of values for the affinity and the heat of formation of solid solutions in the system chromium-nickel for alloys containing 10 to 90 atomic % chromium. Smoluchowski (869) studied the role of vacancies in the mechanism of diffusion in NiAI. Figures illustrate the atomic configuration of the compound and the diffusion coefficient at 1150' C. (2100' F.) is graphed. Evans (1 14) discussed from metallurgical and economic viewpoints foundry melting furnaces for copper-base and nickel-base alloy production. Bola (76) described production processes,

October 1950

.


their influence, and design for sand castings of nickel and nickelbase alloys, 'cast irons, nickel silvers, and other alloys. Hallett (160) discussed recent progress in casting corrosion-resisting nickel-base alloys called Corrosist B, C, and D, which are regarded as equivalent to the corresponding Hastelloy alloys. Richardson (239) reviewed various sand-cast nickel-base alloys for corrosion and heatrresisting purposes, including Monel, siliconMonels, nickel, Inconel, and Langalloys 4R,5R,and 6R. Flachbarth and Pondo (120) describe three new etchants. Ni-Span C, Monel, and other high-nickel alloys are etched with greater contrast. Micrographs are shown illustrating the effectiveness of one of the etchants for Ni-Span C. High Temperature Properties. A ceramic-metal alloy is described (4.8) which is a carbide type containing 80% titanium carbide and 20% cobalt. Its thermal conductivity is reported favorably high. Results of tests as to resistance to thermal shock, short time tensile, and strength a t elevated temperatures are given. Whitman and Repko (891) determined the oxidationpenetration characteristics of a number of titanium carbide-base ceramals at temperaturesof 885' C. (1625"F.),975°C.(1785"F.), and 1090' C. (2000' F.). The various ceramals were composed of titanium carbide and 5, 10,20,and 30% molybdenum, tungsten, or cobalt. The cobalt ceramals were considered better than the tungsten ceramals in over-all oxidation resistance; the molybdenum ceramals were inferior to both the cobalt and tungsten ceramals. Hamjian and Lidman (162) investigated the bonding between metals or alloys and ceramals after exposure at temperatures above the melting point of the metal constituent. Experiments conducted with boron carbide and nickel, cobalt, and iron showed that a bond was formed between the metal and the ceramic. Chromi,um showed satisfactory physical wetting characteristics on the ceramic. Graphs and photographs are shown. Franks (181) discussed structure of alloys for high temperature use, mentioning that precipitated compounds presumably representing carbides and nitrides of chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, columbium, and titanium increase high temperature strength. Compositions of iron-base, nickel-base, and cobaltr base alloys are given. Creep strength, at elevated temperatures, is discwed. Photomicrographs are included. Crawford (100) described the properties and the thermal treatment of Inconel X containing 70% nickel, 14 to 16% chromium, 2.35 to 2.75% titanium, 0.7 to 1.2% columbium, and 0.4 to 1.0% aluminum a t temperatures up to 815" C. (1500" FJ. Applications and fabricating properties are included. Inconel X is again described (44) and mention is made of its outstanding property of high strength under cyclic stress a t temperatures ranging from subzero to 815' C. (1500' FJ. A new alloy, Haynes L-605,is announced (@, 47) containing 50% cobalt, 20% chromium, 15% tungsten, and 10% nickel. Its mechanical working properties are similar to some stainless steels. It is claimed to be useful for high temperature, having a yield strength of 70,000pounds per square inch and an ultimate of 155,000 pounds per square inch a t 1800" F. It is claimed (38) that alloys for articles subjected to prolonged stress at high temperatures, which also are corrosionand creep-resistant, consist of a nickel-chromium or nickel-chrodum-iron base composition containing specified ranges of aluminum, titanium, and zirconium. The alloys may be given a specific age-hardening heat treatment. An alloy, it is claimed (37), suitable for castings for elevated temperature service consists of 45 to 55% nickel, 17 to 23% chromium, and specified ranges of columbium, titanium, calcium, carbon, silicon, and manganese. A heat treatment is specified to improve strength a t temperature. Banister (66) specified the composition of a weldable nickelbase alloy able to withstand the combustion of a leaded fuel. The alloy is composed of 45 to 65% nickel, 20 to 30% chromium, 6 to 15% molybdenum, 1.5 to 2.5% carbon, 0.001 to 0.06% calcium, 0.001to 0.06% zirconium, less than 0.75% silicon, and the

1993

balan'ce iron. cape (92) specified the composition of an alloy subject to abrasion and wear at elevated temperatures and capable of resisting attack by lead oxide at those temperatures. The alloy is comprised of 35 to 70% nickel, 25 to 40% chromium, 4 to 9% tungsten, 0 to 12% cobalt, 1 to 3.5% carbon, and the balance iron not exceeding lo%, with the nickel always in excess of the chromium. Borzdyka (76)determined the creep of a series of alloys a t 600" C. (1110' F.)and 700' C. (1300' F.)having composition rangee of 8 to 60% nickel, 10 to 28% chromium, and 15 to 17% iron. It was found that nickel has no beneficial effect on creep in the austenitic range, while chromium imparta a beneficial effect. The results are explained in terms of lattice stresses produced by alloying. Machlin (203)presented the dislocation theory of fatigue failure for annealed solid solutions and equation giving dependence of ndmber of cycles for failure on stress, temperature, material paraketern, and frequency for uniformly stressed specimens. A predicted quantitative correlation between fatigue and creep is foupd to exist. Materials mentioned included nickel, copper, alqninum, silver, and Armco iron. Graphs are given. Wilkes (89%) described the use of a pneumatically driven elevatedtemierature fatigue machine to determine qualitatively the initial damping as well as changes in damping of test specimens during vibration, Alloys investigated were S-816, Inconel X, N-155, and Timken 1625-6. At a peak stress of 40,000 pounds per square jnch, the nickel- and cobalt-base alloys showed minimum damping near 425" C. (800" F.) and a sharp rise between 730" and 815" C. (1350" and 1500' F.). Graphs are included showing tb results. Grant and Lane (138) studied the aging of gas turbine type alloys by x-ray diffraction, K n m p hardness, stress rupture, microscopic examination, electrical resistance measuremenb, and the use of the dilatometer and the magnetometer. Alloys investigated include low-carbon Vitallium, modified high-carbon Vitallium, 6059 alloy, and modified N-155. All alloys are stable up to 485" C. (900' F.) to 535" C. (1000' F.) and first evidence of precipitation begins at 730" C. (1350' Fa). The additional strength imparted by aging is important only if the alloy does not have a nearly continuous carbide network. The N-155 retains strength better than the others when temperature and time are increased. Photomicrographs showing structures and graphs are included. Guy (146)presented data for a new series of cast nickel-base alloys containing 5.5 to 7% aluminum, 5 to 15% molybdenum, and 5 to 20% chromium as principal alloying elements and 0.5% boron, 2% columbium, 0.5% silicon, 0.5% manganese, and 4.5% iron as minor elements. These alloys are found to possess higher rupture strengths than the best of the cobalebase alloys now available, excellent resistance to oxidation, moderate fatigue strength, but lower elongation and impact strength than cobaltbase alloys. Rosenbaum (946)studied by x-ray diffraction the minor phases of twenty high temperature alloys: Timken 1625-6, 199 DL, Discaloy 25,8590,K&B, Refractaloy 26,Nimonic 80, Inconel W and X, Inconel, Vitallium, 61 alloy, Stellite No. 16, 6059,X-40, S-816,and Hastelloy B. Seven minor phases were identified as metal carbides or nitrides. Details as to the composition of the minor phases are given. Gardner and Avery (236)explored the behavior of nickel and cobalt with and without iron in alloys containing 26% chromium as a base. This c h d u m level was chosen to assure corrosion resistance in the 870' to 1090" C. (1600' to 2000" F.) temperature range. One series consisted of nickel plus cobalt maintained at 70y0with the cobalt progressingly -replacing nickel. Another series consisted of iron at 50% with nickel plus cobalt at 20%. Results of stressstrain rupture tests at 870" C. (1600" F.) and creep curves a t 980' C. (1800' F.)are given. Cobalt, in the nonferrous series, showed a strengthening effect as it replaced nickel. Freeman et al. (126) determined the rupture characteristics at, 925" C. (1700' F.) and 980" C. (1800" F.)of AIS1 Types 330,

1994


310, 310 Si, and 309 as well as Inconel alloys, Vitallium, 5816, S-590, low-carbon N-155, and four experimental alloys containing cobalt, molybdenum, tungsten, and boron in addition to nickel and chromium. Many tables, graphs, and photomicrographs are given. Freeman et at. (126) used physical properties a t room temperature and rupture characteristics a t 650' C. (1200° F.) as criteria to evaluate the effects of systematic variations of solutio11 treatments, aging treatments, and hot-wld work on the propertiesof bar stock fromone heat of low-carbon N-155 alloy. Trends found for the effects of various treatments were believed applicable to other alloys of the same type. Numerous tables, photomicrographs, and graphs are included. Frey et al. (127) described an experimental procedure believed suitable for establishing the fundamental mechanisms by which processing, heat treatment, and chemical composition control the properties of alloys a t high temperatures. Results are given of the application of the method to solution treated and aged low-carbon IS-155 and correlation with short-time creep and rupture characteristics a t 650' C. (1200' F.). Tables and photographs are given. Jones and Wilkes (177) determined the fatigue strength of notched specimens of S816 and Timken 16-25-6 from room temperatilie to 650' C. (1200' F.), Graphs and photomicrographs are given. Lazan (192) developed data on N-155, S816, 19-9DL, and Vitallium showing the influence of dynamic stress on creep and time to rupture within mean-stress and alternating-stress coordinates. The relationships between testing temperature and dynamic stress influence on creep and rupture are shown. Charts an&photomicrographs are given. Fields and Rector (117) investigated the stress rupture properties a t 815' C. (1500' F.) of a number of high temperature alloys such as X-40, S-816,N-155, Inconel X, Nimonic SS,and Refractaloy 26. Detailed results of the investigation are presented. Metcalfe (210) discussed in detail the relative importance of various factors affecting the strength of metals a t high temperature. Nimonic 80 and Vitallium-type alloys are mentioned. Young (302) discussed mehkrgical and design problems of gas turbine engines. Eesults of stress tests show that on the basis of the stress to produce rupture in 1000 hours a t the temperatures given, two forgeable alloys (Inconel X and 5-816) and two cast alloys (Stellite 21 and 31) are the best. Of these four, Inconel X is decidedly superior in strength up to 790' C. (1450' F.). A graph shows results for nine heat-resistant alloys including 18-8and Tyge 316 stainless steel. Silverstein (868)discussed progress made in developing heat-resistant materials for use in gas turbine engines. Charts are given showing high temperature properties of some alloys. Krisch (188) determined creep strength of a nickel alloy containing 40% nickel, 0.1% carbon, 12% chromium, and 21 % cobalt in the annealed hot-rolled and f4W I?) and on cold-worked state a t 600" to 800' C. (€€Wto high-cobalt steels containing 0.1% carbon, 13% chromium, 15 to 24% cobalt, and 5 to 6% molybdenum in the forged state a t 800' C. (1475'F.). Creep data as well as other mechanical properties and microstructures are given. Rees, Burns, and Cook ($87) prepared a considerable number of iron-niekd-dlromium alloys ranging in composition from 40 to 80% iron, 0 to 60% nickel, and 0 to 50% chromium, using components of very high purity. Metallographic and x-ray investigations uf alloy structuresiwere made to determine limits a t which sigma phase did not e,xist as an equilibrium component after anmaling alloys at 650' C. (1200' F.) and 800' C. (1475' F.). Results of other tran&formation phases are also presented. Bomdyka (77) compiled data on the modulus of elasticity for various ferrous alloys inclgding nickel-chromium steels and Elinvar. Borzdyka and Estulin (78) studied the heat resistance of ferronichrome and Nichrome, as well as physical and mechanical properties by changes in heat treatment and compositions. It was found that correct heat treatment was more effective in increasing creep resistance than balance of composition. R o w and Bever ($48) determined experimentally the thermoelastic effect of iron and

Vol. 42, No. 10

nickel as a function of temperature. The magnitude of the thermoelastic effect was found t o change appreciably near the Curie temperature. Other data and diagrams are shown. Armstrong and Grayson-Smith (63) measured the atomic heats of chromium-manganese and cobalt a t temperatures up to 800" C. (1465" F.). Tables give atomic heats a t constant volume for chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, and nickel. Johns and Baldwin (176) presented a brief discussion of results of an investigation of scaling behavior of cobalt in air with explanatory comments. Notes are presented (12) on compositions of nickelchromium base and chromium-aluminum-iron base alloys used for electrical resistance heating materials. SINTERED OR POWDERED ALLOYS

Andrieux (3) discussed the preparation of metal powders by fused electrolysis. Twenty metals, some highly refractory, can be prepared by this method. Among those mentioned are cobalt, nickel, and metals of the platinum group. Raub and Plate (286) studied the sintering of mixtures of silver-gold, copper-gold, nickel-gold, zinc-silver, cadmium-silver, lead-silver, iron-silver, and nickel-silver. Curves showing ductility, electrical resistivity, and lattice constant data are given. Ivensen (171) investigated the matter of density increase in the sintering of single-phase metal powder compacts. An equation was derived for the density of sintered compacts expressed in terms of green density, reguline density, and coefficient ( K ) of relative decrease in pore volume. Experimental results on copper, nickel, and tungstencarbon powders established the correctness of the equation. Long (197) investigated the titanium-nickel system to determine the range of composition in which useful alloys may occur with respect to sintered alloys. The titanium-nickel-oxygen system a t the oxygen level of titanium powder was considered. A tentative diagram for titanium-nickel and photomicrographs of microstructures of such alloys are given. Kopelman and Gregg (187) determined the wetting characteristics of powders of aluminum, magnesium, copper, nickel, titanium, molybdenum, tantalum, platinum, carbon, tungsten, tungsten oxides, uranium oxide (UOZ), manganese carbonate (MnC03), zinc oxide (ZnO), lead oxide (PbO), and titanium oxide (TiOa). This property was investigated qualitatively by examination of suspensions of the powders in kerosene-water and carbon tetrachloride-water mixtures with and without wetting agents. Comstock (97) reviewed German powder metallurgy. Hard sintered carbides were used for projectile cores and cutting tools. Sintered steel was used for shell rotating bands. Nickel, cobalt, aluminum, and copper powders were used and are described. Manson et al. (207) in a review of the German storage battery industry mentioned the use of sintered nickel plates in alkaline storage batteries. Williams (2996) studied the hardness of a series of nickel plates used in nickel-cadmium batteries, exposed for different lengths of time t o the sintering process. An anisotropic sintered permanent magnet is claimed (83)consisting of a sintered ferrous alloy containing 16 to 30% cobalt, 11 to 20%nickel, 6 to 12% aluminum, and 0.25 to 1.5% titanium; 2 to 4% copper may also be present. Thomas (270) described a magnetic core which can be made from 5070 nicke1-50% iron powder or a carbonyl iron powder containing 0.25 to 2.0% by weight of sodium silicate and between 1.0 and 2570 by weight of polyethylene. The method of mixing is given as well as the heating of the core after forming. Fahlenbrach (116) discussed the influence of pores and inclusions on demagnetization of sintered Alni and Alnico alloys. An anisotropic sintered permanent magnet is claimed (34) consisting of a sintered ferrous alloy containing 16 to 30% cobalt, 11 to 20% nickel, 6 to 11% aluminum, and 0.3 to 1.0% zirconium. Kurtz (190) claimed a pressed and sintered oxidation-resistant alloy consisting of 75 to 96% nickel, chromium, and copper in the proportions of 70.2 to 74y0 nickel, 0.1 to 2.0% chromium, and 29.7 to 24% copper and silver in the

October 1950


proportions of 25 to 4,the constituents being thoroughly diffused arid free from chromium oxide inclusions. Hetsig (165) pointed out that because of hardness and brittleness of permanent magnet materials, certain magnets now are made from powders by sintering, Libsch et al. ( f 9 6 )studied the effect of annealing in a magrictic field upon iron-cobalt and iron-cobalt-nickel alloys prepared by powder metallurgy. The results are reported in considerable detail. Denny (106) described a high density alloy made of tungsten-nickel-copper using powder metallurgy. It is pract ically nonmagnetic and is highly resistant to most corrosive environments. The tungsten provides the weight and nickel and copper form a Mon~l-likematrix for the tungsten grains. FABRICATION

Welding. Stanley (262) discussed appearance, strength, usage, limits, production, and standardization in resistance welding as well &s weldability of various metals and alloys. Charts on metal combinations (including nickel, Monel, and Nichrome) that can be welded are included. A new cast iron electrode has been introduced (60) containing a core of more than 90% nickel. Figour (118) reported a curious form of microstructure developed in one of two iron-nickel-cobalt alloy specimens. One was arc welded in an argon atmosphere while the other specimen was welded with oxyacetylene. The torch-welded specimen showed :tn extremely pitted structure with inclusions arranged in lines a t about 90' forming nearly perfect squares with sides of 15 to 16p. It was thought that differential solub es of oxides were responsible. Stirling (266) discussed Monel metal manipulation, including weld, and soldering. Nippes et al. (219) made a study of the resistance seam welding of Monel to low-carbon steel. Suggestions are made to avoid porosity and cracking by causing the fusion to occur only in the Monel. Spicer ($61) presented technical information on the welding and brazing of nickel, Monel, Inconel, K Monel, Duranickel, and Inconel X. Tuttle (877) discussed welding and fabrication of high-nickel alloys and austenitic stainless steels. Harkins (163) submitted tentative welding schedules for the spot welding of various metal combinations such as nickel, Monel, and Inconel to mild steel and the stainless steels. Williams (298) described oxyacetylene, carbon arc, metallic arc, spot, and seam welding techniques for nickel, nickel alloys, and nickel-clad steel. DeGroat (106) described methods used to weld sheet metal components of turbojet engines and mentioned Nimonic 75. hluir (214) discussed hard surfacing for increased wear resistance utilizing nickel-base alloys as the overlay materials. A hard facing rod was announced ( 5 9 ) which is claimed applicable in the mining, cement dredging, and excavating fields. Hall and Hartley (149) announced a welding flux which is suitable for use in the welding of Nimonic, Inconel, Monel, nickel, nickel-chromium alloys, and stainless steels. Marshall (208) presented a survey of principles, applications, and developments of the argon-arc welding process, mentioning aluminum, magnesium, copper, nickel, and their alloys. Webb ($84) described a method for brazing a cemented tungsten carbide using a binder of powdered nickel or cobalt. Rapats and Hummitzsch (234) discussed the advantages of nickel as an alloy element in filler wire for gas or arc welding. Mechanical Forming. Notes are presented ( 4 ) on the machining of high-nickel alloys such &s the Nimonics. The forming of high-nickel alloys was discussed (26) in considerable detail, including die materials, lubricants, circular shells, clearances, draw ring radii, punch radii, shearing, perforating, annealing, and procedures for spinning. A discussion (2'7) of the successful working of nickel and high-nickel alloys mentioned the avoidance of sources of sulfur, the checking of furnace atmospheres, the proper hot working temperatures, suitable means of heating, and other important considerations. A survey was presented (8) on modern machining practices such as milling, broaching, turning, grinding, boring, and drilling of Nimonic alloys. Bastian (68)

1995

discussed wire drawing lubricants or compounds as they relate to nickel and nickel alloy wire drawing as well as other metals and alloys such as aluminum, platinum, gold, silver, rhodium, iridium, copper, and brass alloys. Tyrrell ($78) discussed the formability of seventeen high temperature alloys including five nickel-base and four cobalt-base alloys. Results of tensile tests, cup tests, drop hammer forming, and deep drawing tests were correlated to give comparative formability ratings. Muir (216) discussed tool materials, tool design, cutting fluids, turning, boring, drilling, reaming, tapping, broaching, planing, and milling of high-nickel alloys. Gudtsov and Gelfand (146) reported the results of the influence of cobalt on the properties of 18-4-1 high-speed steel. Rylander (247) described the casting of cutting tools for brass, aluminum, beryllium, beryllium-nickel, copper, magnesium, Monel, and stainless steels by the lost wax process. Tour and Fletcher (274) investigated hot machining of refractory alloys such as S-816. Buck and Britz (86) discussed the mechanical working of Monel in the production of hot-rolled and cold-drawn rods and wire. Coatings. Wakefield (881) discussed characteristics of individual materials such &s nickel, nickel alloys, and bronzes for sprayed metal coatings for protection against wear and corrosion, Wakefield (282) described metallizing in chemical plants utilizing Monel, nickel, Nichrome, and stainless steels sprayed coatings on cast iron, steel, or other metal bases. Reininger (238) described the properties of sprayed metal coatings of materials such as nickel, copper, aluminum, lead, tin, zinc, mild steel, and others. Wesley, Sellers, and Roehl (289) gave the results of extensive tests to determine how rapidly it is possible to electrodeposit nickel and what are good practical conditions for such high speed deposition. It was found that the limiting current density for sound nickel deposits increases approximately linearly with the rate of flow of the electrolyte over the cathode surface. Many other important results of the test program are included. A discussion (58) included the advantages of bright nickel plating, the equipment required, and preparation of articles for plating. Knapp (184) described a method of electroplating a high strength aluminum alloy with an adherent deposit of hard nickel. Orbaugh (222) discussed the advantages of hard nickel plating, applications, physical properties of the deposits, rate of deposition, solution, and operating conditions. Prine (233) discussed the use of nickel-plated industrial equipment for use in the chemical and process industries. Ritzenthaler (240) described the use of heavy nickel plating for salvage purposes. The mechanical properties of nickel are more useful for this purpose than are those of chromium, for example. Hunter (168) claimed a method for coating an article fabricated from aluminum, chromium, cobalt, copper, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, titanium, and others with another metal or alloy from the same group by treating the article a t high temperature with a gaseous halide of the coating metal. Pickling and Polishing. The pickling of nickel and highnickel alloys is outlined ( 2 9 ) including solution compositions, cleaning, and degreasing treatments. Rosen (244) discussed the cleaning and pickling, and removal of embedded iron or steel with reference to Monel. Charlesworth (94) described a solution useful for the electrolytic polishing of metals and alloys, among which are nickel and its alloys. Engel (118) discussed the electropolishing of brass, Monel, nickel, silver, stainless steels, and zinc and gave compositions of solutions useful for this purpose, The salient features are given (19, 84) of the Battelle process of chemical polishing of copper, nickel, Monel, nickel-silver, and brass. Jacquet (178) summarized the physicochemical nature of electrolytic polished surfaces together with mechanically polished surfaces. Illustrations and photomicrographs are included. Wensch (887) described the thermal polishing and etching of nickel involving the vacuum annealing of nickel for 25,000 minutes a t 900' C. (1652"F.), 1000' C. (1832"F.), and 1093' C. (2000' F.). The polishing O C c i I v as a result of the evaporation of

1996


the metal from the surface of the specimen. Bleiweiss (73) discussed methods, equipment, and abrasives for buffing and polishing nickel plate, stainless steel, and Monel either by hand or by machine. Annealing and Heat Treatment. Jaffee et al. (173) described how thin sheets of various heat-treatable alloys including Ni-Span C were formed into corrugated diaphragms, age hardened, and tested for strength to determine if the cold work required a modified aging treatment. Complete data are given showing that cold working was of the order of 10% and was negligible in respect to time-temperature relationship of aging to overaging. Heating and cooling operations of annealing nickel, Monel, K Monel, and Inconel are discussed (88) in detail. Graphs, tables, and photomicrographs are included. Gresham aud Hall (140, 141) claimed a heat treatment for a wide range of nickel-chromiumbase alloys compositions including the Nimonics. A preliminary precipitation beat treatment was given a t a temperature between 650' C. (1200' F.) and 895' C. (1650' F.) for 5 to 30 hours before the alloys were subjected to the normal heat treatment. Creep test results are. given, Peck (230) discussed the characteristics and applications of eight representative controlled atmospheres for heat treating and brazing ferrous and nonferrous materials such as nickel, cupronickels, and skinless steels. A review is presented (6)on the annealing and pickling of the Nimonic alloys and their modifications. Hotchkiss and Webber (186) gave an extensive review of how and where protective atmospheres are used. The effecta of furnace atmospheres of hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon monoxide, or dissociated ammonia in various heating processes are described. Comments on sulfur in relation to the effect of this contaminant on nickel and high-nickel alloys are included. APPLICATIONS

High Temperature. Hoffman and Yaker (162) in a series of tests investigated the effects of aging treatment on the life of small cast Vitallium gas-turbine blades. Aged and unaged blades were tested a t 815' C. (1500' F.) with a centrifugal stress of 20,000 pounds per square inch at the expected failure zone. The results indicated improved mean life, uniformity of individual blade life, and consequently improved time to initial failure. Galmiche (184.6)described apparatus, preparation of the surface of test pieces, and determination of the amount of metal oxidized of a number of refractory alloys such as nickel-chromium base alloys. The atmosphere tested contained 8% carbon dioxide, 8% water, 5% oxygen, and 79% nitrogen as well as the same gas containing 1% sulfur dioxide. The temperature in each case ranged from $00' to lO00' C. (1475" to 1832' F.). Ley (194) commented that copper-free nickel alloys or absolutely pure aluminum are used asmaterialsof construction for parts which might come in contact with the hydrogen peroxide used in the Peenemiinde Rocket A5. Stewart and Ellinghausen (884) described a series of jet testa, utilizing gas produced from the combustion of Diesel fuel oil, as a means for comparing the resistance of a number of high temperature alloys to hot gas impingement, Tests were made a t eight temperatures ranging from 650' to 815' C. (1200" to 1500' E?.) using a Type B turbo-supercharger, Twelve alloys were tested containing from 8.51 to 42.68% nickel. Saldin and DeHuff (648) tested bladed d i s h using 199DL and Timken 1&25-6 alloys in a rotor spun as nearly as possible to engine operating conditions. Test results are analyzed and a discussion of the advantages and design of such a facility is presented. Moore et al. (816)made a study of the ingredients of ceramic coatings for heat-resisting alloys which react with the alloys and limit the life of coated materials a t high temperature. A total of 61 compounds which have been or might be used in coatings were tested on Hastelloy B, S816, 5590, and Haynes Stellite No. 21 a t 815' C. (1500' F.) for 17 hours! Results show that some ceramic coating combinations will prolong service life of the alloys. Burdick et al. (89) conducted a series of 109 tests to evaluate certain Characteristics of

Vol. 42, No. 10

six ceramic oxide bodies for high temperature applicationa especially as turbine blades. The apparatus includes 80% nicke1-20% chromium and 80% platinum-20% rhodium resistance wire. Wilterdink (897) investigated rim cracking in a welded blade composite gas turbine wheel. The rim was Timken 16-25-6 and crack growth was observed to occur during the cooling part of the thermal stress cycle. Cross and Freeman (log) determined the properties of a large forged rotor disk of Inconel X for gas turbine service. Results are included for tensile strength, impact, rupture, creep,and others a t room temperature, 650'C. (1200' F.), 735' C. (1350' F.), and 815' C. (1600' F.). Tables, graphs, and microstructures are shown. Hoffman et 02. (161) investigated a carbide-type ceramal of 80% titanium carbide and !20% cobwlt as a gas turbine blade material. Elevated temperature short-time tensile and thermal shock properties were determined, the values of which showed promise. Osgood (823)reported that Inconel jet liner production tops a one-a-minute goal. Cross and Freeman (103) investigated the properties of a large forged disk of S816, determining strewrupture and creep a t 650' C. (1200' F.), 735' C. (1350' F.), and 815' C. (1500' F.). A new alloy for jet engine application waa announced (If) consisting of nickel, aluminum, and molybdenum. Included is a brief history as to ita development. Vandermaat (W9)performed tests, the object of which was to determine the mechanical and physical properties which offer promise for applications in gas turbines operating a t 735' to 815' C. (1350' to 1500' F.). Materials tested include Hastelloy B, Nichrome, Timken 15266, Inconel, Nimonic, Refractaloy A, K-42-B, ATV-3, and a number of nickel steels. Stress, rupture, and creep results are shown. Bucher (86) presented an extremely detailed account of tests utilizing two types of gas turbines using gas oil and Britoleum as fuels, incorporating blade materials of Rex 337A, G18B, Staybrite F.C.B., Nimonic 80, and Nimonic 80A. The conclusion is drawn that difficulties will be experienced in running open-cycle gas turbines on anything except distillates. Vanadium pentoxide is mentioned aa a corrosive agent. Morgan (218) reported that the jet engine has been improved during the past 8 years through the use of precision casting techniques and high temperature alloys such as K-24B, Refractaloy, and Discaloy. Weeton (286) conducted an investigation to determine factors contributing to failures of Inconel combustion chamber lines used in two types of turbo-jet engines. Large numbers of oracks formed a t streasrelieving holes of louvres and probably were oaused by thermal and mechanical fatigue of the flaps. Relief of strem through the removal of local strewraisers improved performance. Tabular data and photomicrographs were included. Park (666) described the manufacture of sheet metal combustion chamber equipment of jet engines, mentioning the use of Nimonic 75. Price ($86)claimed a reactive propulsion power plant having a radial flow compressor and disclosed turbine rotors and blading of an alloy high in nickel, chromium, and cobalt and other mntribub ing alloying elements. In an article (82) entitled "New Aircraft, New Methods" a description is given of advanoes made in manufacturing methods to meet today's airoraft requirements. Nimonic 75, Stellite, Inconel, Monel, and niokel are mentioned as useful materials for heat and/or corrosion resistance. Boericke (74) discussed the properties of various Haynes high temperature alloys which are cobalt-base, cobalt-nickel-base, or niokel-base. Notes on fabrication and applications are given, including the precision casting of Lockheed P2V2 collector ring in Hastelloy C and Haynes Stellite No. 21. Silsbee (667) presented some notes on recent NACA tests of an SOY0 titanium carbide-"% cobalt ceramal used for aircraft turbine blades. Reference is made to high temperature alloys containing titanium, such as K42B, Refractaloy 26, Discaloy 26, Inconel W, Nimonics 80 and 80A. and Tinidur. A new series of all-stainlesa or all-Inoonel eleotrio immersion heaters is announced (61)which can b e w e d for heating a wide

ootober 1950


range of industrial chemicals. Hornfeck (284)described characteristica of thermometer elements mentioning Inconel, nickel, Monel, Nichrome, and 18-8 stainless steels. Stove elements from strip Inconel are announced (IS) for new-type electric range elements. The heater resistance wire is 80% nickeI-20% chromium. Dovey and Jenkins (208) described the “green-rot” type of corrosion occurring under specified circumstances in 80% nickel-20% chromium and 37% nickel-18% chromium-40% iron alloys. Kapnicky et al. (178) studied the adherence of molten glass to heated metals, including 69.5% nickei-37.3% chromium-3.2% tungsten and 64% copper-22% nickel-70fo aluminum. Results are expressed in terms of the highest metal temperature a t which a drop of molten glasa showed no adherence. Kimpel and Cook (189)studied factors influencing the oxidation of iron in the S i n g of ground coat enamels. Results indicated that a nickel flash on the iron caused a decrease in iron oxidation. Ikenberry and Canfield (289) described a rapid photometric method for determining the amount of nickel on iron surfaces prior to enameling. Petroleum. Nixon et al. ($80) disclosed the fact that in the distillation of olefin-hydrogen chloride all surfaces in contact with the mixture being fractionated consist essentially of nickel. An article (68) described maintenance methods, equipment inspection procedure, and qualifications required for welders. Reference is made to the use of Monel vessels for hydrofluoric acid service and Hastelloy alloys A and B. Teeple (969)reviewed materials of construction suitable for use in valves for the petroleum industry where corrosive services existed. Both ferrous and nonferrous alloys are discussed. Zeh (808) discussed corrosion experience in oil refining equipment including plant test methods, reference test points, pilot plant tests, and expected life of equipment. Among the various materials mentioned are Monel, Ni-Resist, and austenitic stainless steels. Beamer and Fuqua (69) claimed a method of inhibiting the corrosion of tubing used in sulfuric acid concentrators wherein the boiling acid concentration reaches 55% and higher. The method used consists of the predeposition of a carbonaceous film on the acid side of the tube which may be made of Hastelloy D. Kaye (179)in discussing corrosion in the petroleum refinery mentioned that the cost of corrosion to the consumer was about E l per ton on all petroleum products. Detailed information on the behavior of components made of various materials including Monel and 1&8 stainless steels is given. Treseder and Wachter ($76)discussed corrosion of petroleum process equipment employing aluminum chloride. Tables are presented showing corrosion of nickel steel, Type 316 stainless steel, nickel, and Hastelloy B by aluminum chloride and arsenic and antimony compounds as inhibitors. Nelson (928) described the corrosion resistance of various alloys considered for off-shore drilling platforms and mentioned that Hastelloy C, as a result of Kure Beach tests, is the most outstanding alloy tested so far. Nelson (917) in a symposium on stopping refinery corrosion mentioned that an alloy containing 57% nickel, 12% chromium, and 1.7% tungsten is understood to be used in the Claude synthesis of ammonia with a life between 2OOO and 20,000 h o w , depending upon the quality of the oaating. Buell and Weber (88) diem m d various metals and alloys used in producing ethylene by the cracking of propane. Inconel and stainless steels are mentioned together with comments on their properties. It is claimed Inconel is undesirable because of a tendency to accelerate catslytic cracking of the hydrocarbon at operating temperature. Chemical Processing and Miscellaneous. Haines ( 2 4 8 ) found that both nickel and Monel are suitable for shipping containere for dry bromine and were accepted as such by the Interstate Commerce Commission. Bromine of satisfactory dryness can be prepared by psaaing it through sulfuric acid 60% by weight or greater. Other materials tested included Haatelloy alloys A, B, and C. I n a symposium on fatty acids versus materials of construction, Friend (1N)discussed nickel and nickel alloys. Friend and Mason (133)discussed the resistance of metals and alloys, includ-

1997

ing nickel and nickel alloys, to corrosion in the proceasingof soape and fatty acids. Williams ($@4)described a glyceride hydrolysis tower made of Inconel to minimize corrosion by fatty acids. Twitchell hydrolysis units are lined with Monel for corrosion resistance. Pot& and McBride (982) described a new plant manufacturing a number of chemicals from fats, oils, and fatty acids. Monel tanks are used for refining and bleaching the fats with sulfuric acid and are used for the storage of sulfuric acid and caustic soda. Other metals and alloys are used, such as stainleas steel for acetic acid storage and aluminum for finished fatty acid storage. Spannuth (960) discussed stabilization and antioxidants with reference to fats. It is mentioned that nickel, stainless steel, aluminum, and glass are preferred materials of construction in this field. Lecithin and citric acid are mentioned as stabilizers. In a symposium on hydrofluoric acid versus materials of construction, Chisholm (96) discussed the Hastelloy alloys, Friend (280) nickel and nickel alloys, and Luce (298)the Chlorimet alloys. I n a similar symposium on caustic soda Friend (182) discussed nickel and nickel alloys and Luce (299) discussed the Chlorimet alloys. In a revision of a previous bulletin (170) the use of nickel and nickel alloys in handling caustic soda and other alkaline liquors is reviewed in detail. Also included is a discussion of the use of nickel for the continuous finishingof caustic soda. Starr (968) discussed the use of various alloys in manufacturing chemicals from corn. Monel, bronze, and Type 316 stainless steel are mentioned. Friend (298) discussed the effects of sea water on various metals and alloys, including nickel-copper and cupronickel alloys under conditions in which they are likely to be used in condensers and heat exchangers. The use of nickel-clad steel is reported (6) for malt and cereal cookers in a modern brew house. Olive (992) compared the biological and synthetic processes for producing chloromycetin. A flowsheet is given and extensive use of Inconel for procesa equipment is described. Keating (280) discussed certain environmental conditions occurring in the heavy chemical industry and their effects on corrosionresistant metals and alloys, such as stainless steels and Hastelloy alloys. The use of Monel is described (9) in an ammonium sulfate plant for sprays and vacuum filter construction. New corrosion-resistant plug-type valves are described (40) wherein a variety of corrosion-resistant metals and alloys can be used depending upon the proposed service conditions. Materials mentioned are Chlorimets 2 and 3, Durco D-10, pure nickel, Inconel, Monel, and Ni-Resist. A tantalum-surfaced nickel, Tanta-Clad, has been announced (24) which offers the chemical immunity of tantalum and the strength of the base metal. Hicks (167)described the use of Hastelloy C as a rotameter float in acid spin bath service in the viscose rayon industry. A packlesa expansion joint is announced (90)as being available with a Monel metal bellows. The improved model assures a vacuum-tight piping system and is recommended for heatingriser expansion in tall buildings. Waindle ($80) described new uses for a cobaltrbase spring alloy and gave physical and mechanical properties for the alloy. Wirth (998) described the use of Monel in the demineralization of water for feedwater purposes for a 1250 pounds per square inch steam generator. The use of and Monel pressure snubbers in instruments is described (4) benefits of its general resistance to corrosion are mentioned. By substituting Monel wire netting for other materials, it is found (61) that Monel crab traps have twice the life of copper and three times the life of other materials, besides lightening the weight of the traps. Harmer et al. (264)reviewed recent developments in whisky filtration, mentioning the use of Monel wire cloth in vertical screen-type filters. Hicks (168) mentioned the use of nickel alloys, Hastelloy C, Hastelloy B, and Monel as well as stainless steels in rotameters in pulp and paper mills, and gave charts. A nickel-clad copper wire (18) provides good electrical conductivity combined with heat and corrosion resistance and can be used as electrical leads in aircraft, electrical furnaces,

1998


appliances, and other equipment where conditions make solld copper conductors brittle and unreliable. MacLean (206) described fourteen operations involved in fabricating Monel range boilers. Tietz ( W d ) claimed a method for producing cladded cooking utensils utilizing nickel-chromium alloy with copper spaced interfacially. Wire filter cloth made of Hastelloy alloys B and C is now available ( 7 ) . Grigorieff claims (148) an electric bushing made of 41 to 43% nickel and 59 to 57% iron which is embedded in part in glass. Potential applications of sound as an industrial tool are presented (10). A nickel-cobalt alloy is used for a magnetostriction transducer unit which can be used for degassing castings, testing the depths and angle of flaws in steel tubes, and noiseless drilling of hard ceramics and metals. I t is reported (49) that Monel has been used for practically all kitchen and pantry equipment on the new Shasta Daylights. Welded Monel and Inconel pails are available (64) in 12-, 14, 1 6 , and 20-quart stock sizes. Knight (186) described the use of Vitallium bone plates in the treatment of small animal fractures. Stainless steel uses are also mentioned. LaQue and Clarke (191) in a review of alkaline pulping processes described how nickel and nickel alloys are used to combat many of the corrosion piablems occurring in this industry. Barnes and Clarke (67) gave a practical discussion of the use of nickel and nickel alloys in pulp and paper making. Patterson (227) described precipitator corrosion in a kraft recovery unit which was due to high moisture content in the gases, and sodium chloride, sulfur dioxide, and air leakage. Suggested materials of construction are Monel, Inconel, and 18-8stainless steels, of which the latter two appear to be the most desirable. Additional Monel roofing has been installed (68) on the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Monel was specified (66) as a reroofing material on a rectifier building in a chlorine plant. The previous Monel roofing has been in service 13 years and has been affected in no noticeable way. The new trucking terminal at Newark, N. J., will utilize (67) Monel for a large proportion of the continuous-roof four-unit building. Baker (66) mentioned the use of Invar in variable temperature dielectric cells of wide frequency range for solids and liquids. Roberts and Burns ($41) mentioned the use of Ni-Span C for internal sections of a mechanical filter for radio frequencies where temperature stability is of primary importance. Berg (72) described the nickel-cadmium battery, giving the chemical characteristics of the cell and itis practical application. Halls (161) report( ithe comparisons of some metals for use in acid pickling baskets. Tests were made on Monel, 18-8stainless, mild steel, aluminum alloy, copper, and 60-40 brass under numerous acid and alkaline cleaning conditions. The advantages of 326 Monel sheathing-namely, corrosion- and rust-resisting, nonmagnetic, and easy soldering-are pointed out (16) for shielding power cables for submarine and underground use. Material specifications are given (IS)on safety, angle, check, and sampling line valves used on pressure tank cars. Monel is to be used for anhydrous hydrogen fluoride and liquid chlorine, while nickel or Hastelloy C is to be used for liquid bromine. Monel tanks of 120 gallons each were fabricated (66) for installation in a 64foot luxury yacht to hold fresh water and gasoline. Searle et aE. (264) discussed corrosion as it is encountered in wineries and described the testing of nickel, copper, Monel, aluminum, and pewter in various operations. Least corrosion and subsequent effect on the desirable properties of wine were noted when stainless steel and Inconel were used. Brenner (83)outlined the use of alloys in two breweries and mentioned the use of Monel for hot wort tanks. Stainless steel and glass are also mentioned for various pieces of equipment, Hoertz and Rogers (160) discussed recent trends in engine valve design and maintenance for automotive and Diesel engines. Materials commonly used for hard facing are Nichrome, Stellites 6 and F, and Coast Metal 140. Nichrome is used primarily on aircraft, but the other three are commonly used in the automotive field. Improvements are claimed (32) relating to

Vol. 42, No. 10

cooking utensils through the use of a cast alloy consisting of 25 to 40% nickel, 4 to 7% chromium, 5 to 7% silicon, 1.5 to 2.8 total carbon, and the balance iron. Lebens (198) surveyed available types of wet and dry batteries, including the lead-acid type and the nickel-cadmium alkaline type. Macklin (204) used a nickel cylinder to hold a sample of solid U236-enricheduranium hexafluoride in an examination of U*ab for the existence of gamma-ray accompanying the alpha decay of U*39 A cobalt-nickel-chromium-molybdenum-manganese-ironberyllium-carbon alloy is used (15, 28) for nibs on a new line of fountain pens. It is noncorrosive and nonmagnetic. Parker (226) reviewed utilization of the characteristics of permanent magnets in drag devices and torque transmitting couplings. A graph shows the value of rotor loss plotted against magnetizing force for Cunico and Alnico 2, 5 , and 6. Alnico 5 and 6 are superior. Dana and Van Meter (104) reported the use of H nickel tube actuated by a magnetostrictive oscillator is capable of pinpointing 2 watts of sound recordable on sound-sensitivr paper without touching its surface. Whewell (290) reported that Monel and other nickel alloys are of great value in a wet processing plant for finishing wool fabrics. Applications of thest, materials are given. Coates (96) discussed the treatment and properties of springs and mentioned the use of Inconel for high temperature applications. Tricker (276) discussed extensively metals and alloys used in clock and instrument manufacture, mentioning, among many alloys, Elgiloy, Elinvar, and Metelinvar. Tausz and Tauss (268) presented extensive information on alloys containing titanium and beryllium used in watch springs developed through the interrogation of certain German people in Hausau. Nickelberyllium alloys are described with properties. LITERATURE CITED

Aebersold, P. C . , Mech. Eng., 71, No. 12, 987-90, 1031 (1949) Allen, V. O., Patent Gaz., 625, 1328 (Aug. 30, 1949); U. S. Patent 2,480,432. (3) Andrieux, J. L.,J.four blec., 57, No. 1, 12-14; No. 2, 26-7

(1) (2)

(1948). (4)

Anon., Aircraft Production, 11, No. 134, 399-404 (December

1949). (5) Ibid., 12, No. 137,77-8 (March 1950). (6) Anon., Am. Brewer, 2 pp. (March 1949). (7) Anon., Am. Machinist, 93, 156 (Aug. 11, 1949). (8) Anon., Automobile Engr., 40, KO.524, 57-8 (February 1950). (9) Anon., Broken Hill Proprietary Review, 27, No. 2, 20-2 (March 1950). (10) Anon., Business Week, No. 1047, 64-6, 68 (Sept. 24, 1949). (11) Anon., Can. Chem. Process Inds., 33, 1071, 1072 (1949). (12) Anon,, Can. Metah Met. Inds., 12, No. 6, 14-15, 32, 35 (1949). (13) Anon., Chem. Eng., 56, No. 10, 204 (1949). (14) Anon., Chem. Trade J.,125, 380 (Sept. 23, 1949). (15) Anon., Corrosion, 5, No. 9, 14 (1949). (16) Ibid., KO.10, p. 8. (17) Anon., EZectricaE Mfg., 44, No. 4, 176, 178 (October 1949). (18) Ibid., 45, NO.5, 156-8 (1950). (19) Anon., Electroplating, 3, No. 8, 295-6 (April 1950). (20) Anon., Heating, Piping & Aar Condztioning, 21, No. 11, 206 (1949). (21) Anon., Ind. Heatzng, 16, No. 7, 1291 (1949). (22) Anon., Machinery, 55, 141-204 (July 1949). (23) Anon., Materials and Methods, 30, 65 (December 1949). (24) Anon., Metal Finishing, 47, No. 11, 50, 52 (1949). (25) Anon., Metal Ind., 75, 451-4 (Nov. 25, 1949). (26) Ibid., pp. 5 3 1 4 (Dec. 23, 1949); pp. 561-2 (Dec. 30, 1949). (27) Anon., Metallurgia, 41, 127-33 (January 1950). (28) Ibid., pp. 191-6 (February 1950); pp. 251-5 (March 1950). (29) Anon., Metal Treatment, 16, No. 59, 183, 188 (1949). (30) Anon., Modern Power & Eng., 43, KO.10, 54-6 (1949). (31) Anon., M o d Gen. Reference Sheet, Ser. 627, 3 (June 18, 1949). (32) Ibid., Ser. 629, 1 (July 2, 1949): Brit. Patent 633,202. (33) Anon,, Mond Gen. Reference Sheet, Ser. 638, 2 (Sept. 10, 1949). (34) Ibid., Ser. 645, 2 (Oct. 29, 1949). (35) Ibid., Ser. 648, 1 (Nov. 26, 1949). (36) Ibid., Ser. 653, 1 (Dec. 31, 1949). (37) Ibid., Ser. 655, 1 (Jan. 14, 1950). (38) Ibid.,'Ser. 656, 1 (Jan. 21, 1950). (39) Anon., Natl. Bur. Standards, Circ. 485 (March 22, 1950). revision of Circ. 100.

October 1950


(40) Anon., Paper Trade J., 129,105 (Sept; 22, 1949). (41) Anon., Practical Eng., 18, No. 456, 420-2 (194k). (42) Anon., Product Eng., 20, No. 2, 150-1 (July 1949). (43) Ibid., No. 10, p. 82. (44) Ibid., p, 87. (45) Zbid., No. 11, p. 3. (46) Ibid., 21, No. 3, 190 (1950). (47) Ibid., No. 5, p. 3. (48) Anon., Purchasing, 27, 170 (November 1949). (49) Anon., Railway Age, 127, 50-5 (July 16, 1949). (50) Anon., Rev. Sci. Instruments, 20, 847 (1949). (51) Anon., Sci. IlZustrated, 4, No. 6, 38-43 (1949). (52) Anon., Sheet Metal Inds., 26, 1302-4 (June 1949). (53) Anon., Sheet Metal Worker, 40, No. 9, 33, 35-6 (1949). (54) Ibid., p. 48. ( 5 5 ) Ibicl., 41, 63 (October 1949). (56) Ibid., pp. 39-41 (November 1949), (57) Ibid., NO. 5, 52-3 (1950). (58) Anon., Welding, 18, 123-6 (March 1950). (59) Anon., Welding Eng., 34, No. 8, 59 (1949). (60) Anon., Welding J., 29, No. 2, 176 (1950). (61) Anon., Wire & Wire Products, 25, No. 4, 316 (1950). (62) Apert, C., and Cabarat, R., Compt. rend., 228,490-2 (1949). (63) Armstrong, L. D., and Grayson-Smith, H., Can. J. Research, 28, 51-9 (1950). (64) Astbury, N. F., Sheet Metal Inds., 27, 43-6 (January 1950). (65) Baker, E. B., Rev. Sci. Instruments, 20, 716-33 (1949). (66) Banister, R. T. (to Thompson Products, Inc.), U. S. Patent 2,503,608 (April 11, 1950). (67) Barnes, R T., and Clarke, K. H. J., Pulp and Paper M w . Can., 49. 69-73 (Ami1 1948). (68) Rastian, E. L. -H., Wire & Wire Produck, 24, No. 7, 588-92, 626-33 (1949). (69) Beamer, C. M., and Fuqua, M. C., Patent Uaz., 625, 477-8 (Aug. 9, 1949). (70) Bennett, G. E., and Davies, R. M., J. Inst. Metals, 75, 759-76 (May 1949). (71) Bennett, 0.G. (to Catalyst Research Corp.), Patent Gaz., 628, 522 (Nov. 8, 1949). (72) Berg, C,, Iron Steel Engr., 26, No. 9, 133-6 (1949). (73) Bleiweiss, J. L., Am. Machinist, 93, 105-12 (Aug. 11, 1949). (74) Boericke, F. S.,Aero Digest, 59, 43-5 (August 1949). (75) Bolz, R. W., Machine Design, 21, No. 8, 127-40 (1949). (76) Borzdyka, A. M., J. Inst. Metals, 17, 257 (December 1949). (77) Borzdyka, A. M., Vestnik Mashinostroeniba, 28, No. 2, 13-16 (1948). (78) Borzdyka, A. M., and Estulin, G. V., Stal, 7, 823-30 (1947). (79) Bo langer, C., Rev. mdt., 46, 321-42 (May 1949). (80)Bra g, L., J. Inst. Metals, 16, 636-7 (June 1949). (81) Brailsford, F., Oliver, D. A., Hadfield, D., and Polgreen, G. R., J . Inst. Elec. Engrs. (London). 95, No. 96, 522-43 (1948). (82) Brennen, F. K., Summary Report, Air Materiel Command, Wright Field, F-SU-1155-RD (October 1947). (83) Brenner, M. W., IND.ENG.CHEM.,41, 2939-45 (1949). (84) Bryant, P. S., Institution of Mining & Metallurgy Symposium, London, Preprint 17 (July 7-8, 1949). (85) Bucher, J. B., Trans. Inst. Engrs. Shipbuilders Scot., pp. 275320 (1950). (86) Buck, M. P., and Brita, N. C., Am. Inst. Mech. Engrs., Inst. Metals Div., Symposium Series, No. 3, 23-33 (1949). (87) Bueche, E”., J . Optical SOC.Am., 38, 806-10 (1948). (88) Buell, C. K., and Weber, L. J., Petroleum Processing, 5, 266-72, 387-91 (1950). (89) Burdick, M. D., Moreland, R. E., and Geller, R. F., Natl. Advisory Comm. Aeronaut., Tech. Note 1561 (April 1949). (90) Butler, 0. I., J. Inst. Elec. Engrs., 95, 627-35 (1948). (91) Campbell, E. E., Powell, C. F., Nowicki, D. H., and Gonser, B. W., J . Electrochem. Soc., 96, 318-33 (November 1949). (92) Cape, A. T., Patent Caz., 626, 532 (Sept. 13, 1949); U. S. Patent 2,481,976 (to Coast Metals, Inc.). (93) Cardwell, A. B., Phys. Rev., 76, 125-7 (July 1, 1949). (94) Charlesworth, P. A., Mond Gen. Reference Sheet, Ser. 628 (June 25, 1949). (95) Chisholm, C. G., Chem. Eng., 56, No. 9, 229 (1950). (96) Coates, B.. Eng. & Chem. Digest, 1, 137-43 (October-December 1949). (97) Comstock, G. J., BIOS-FIAT Final Rept. 772 (June 17.1947). (98) Corson, M. G., Metal Progress, 56, 360, 386 (September 1949). (99) Craighead, C. M., Simmons, 0. W., and Eastwood, L. W., J . Metals, 188, No. 3 (1950). (100) Crawford, C. A., Materials & Methods, 30, No. 10,57-61 (1949). (101) Crede, J. H., and Martin, J. P., J . Applied Phua., 20, 966-71 .(1949). (102) Cross, H. C., and Freeman, J. W., Natl. Advisory Comm. Aeronaut., Tech. Note 1765 (February 1949). (1031 Ihid., 1770 (April 1949).

1

1999

(104) Dana, H. J., and Van Meter, J. L., Electronics, 23, No. 4, 84-5 (1960). (105) DeGroat, G. H., Machinery, 56, 184-9 (September 1949). (106) Denny, G. H., Steel, 124, 101-2 (April 18, 1949). (107) Deveae, H., Compt. rend. Acad. Sci., Paris, 226, 727-9 (1948). (108) Dovey, D. M., and Jenkins, I., J . Inst. Metals, 76, 581-96 (1950). (109) Doyle, W. M. (to High Duty Alloys, Ltd.), Brit. Patent 620,676; M o d Gen.Reference Sheet, Ser. 627 (June 18, 1949). (110) Eash. J. T., and Kihlgren, T. E., American Foundary men’s Society, Preprint 49-9 (1949). (111) Elsea, A. R., and McBride, C. C., J. Metals, 188, No. 1 (1950). (112) Engel, E., Tool Eng., 24, No. 3,43-7 (1950). (113) Epelboim, I., and Marais, A., Compt. rend., 229, 1131-3 (Nov 28, 1949). (114) Evans, F. C., Foundry Trade J.,88,59-64 (Jan. 19, 1950). (115) Fahlenbrach, H., Arch. EisenhOttenw., 20, 301-4 (1949). (116) Fahlenbrach, H., and Sixtus, K., 2. Metallkunde. 40, 187-93 (1949). (117) Fields, M. E., and Rector, W. H., U. 8. Air Force, Tech. Rep! 5893 (July 1949). (118) Figour, H., Rev. mO., 45, 637-8 (1949). (119) Fitsgerald-Lee, G., Electronic Eng., 20, 351-3 (1948). (120) Flachbarth, C. T., and Pondo, C. S., Metal Progress, 56, 688-91 (November 1949). (121) Franks, R., Yearbook, Am. Ironsteel Inst., 1948, 506-39. (122) Franks, R., and Binder, W. O., Mond Gen. Reference Sheet, Ser. 844 (1949); Brit. Patent 627,981,126 (Oat. 22, 1949). (123) Franks, R.. and Binder, W. 0. (to Electro Metallurgical Co.), Ibid., 637,436 (May 13, 1950); M o d Gen. Reference Sheet* Ser. 671. (124) Fraunberger, F., Ann. Phusik, 2, Ser. 6, 178-82 (1948); Piiyyics Abs., 52, Abs. 2606 (June 1949). (126) Freeman, J. W., Reynolds, E. E., Frey, D. N., and White, A. E., Natl.: Advisory Comm. Aeronaut., Tech. Note 1867 (May 1949). (126) Freeman, J. W., Reynolds, E. E., and White, A. E., Ibkt., 1465 (February 1948). (127) Frey, D. N., Freeman, J. W., and White, A. E., Ibid., 1940 (August 1949). (128) Friend, W. Z., Am. Inst. Chem. Engrs., “Symposium on Water. Problems of the Process Industries,”New York, Nov. 17. 1949 (129) Friend, W. Z . , Chem. Eng., 56, No. 7, 237-8, 240 (1949). (130) Ibid., No. 10, 228, 230, 232 (1949). (131) Ibid., 57, NO. 2, 218-20 (1950). (132) Friend, W. Z., IND.ENQ.CHEW,41, 2126-32 (1949). (133) Friend. W. Z., and Mason, J. F., Jr., Corrosion, 5, No. 11, 35568 (1949). (134) Galmiche, P., Rev. mdt., 46, 843-8 (December 1949). (135) Gardner, F. S., and Avery, H. S., Office of Technical Services, U. 8. Dept. Commerce, PB 30,773 (April 16, 1945). (136) Gaugler, E. A., Product Eng., 20, No. 7, 84-9 (1949). (137) Geisler, A. H., Elec. Eng., 69, No. 1, 37-44 (1950). (138) Gerlach, W., 2.Metallkunde, 40, No. 8, 231-9 (1949). (139) Grant, N. J., and Lane, J. R., Trans. Am. SOC.Metals, 41, 9524 (1949). (140) Gresham, H. E., and Hall, D. W., M o d Cen. Reference Sheet, Ser. 646: Brit. Patent 627,489 (Nov. 5, 1949). (141) Gresham, H. E., and Hall, D. W. (to Roils-Royce, Ltd.). U. S. Patent 2,497,667;Patent Gaz., 631, No. 2, 534 (1950). (142) Grifithe, W. T., Mond Gem. Refwence Sheet, Sex. 637 (Sept. 3, 1949). (143) Grigorieff, W. W. (to General Electric Co.), Patent Gaz., 625, No. 2, 463-4 (Aug. 9, 1949). (144) Grube, G., J. Inst. Metals, 17, 63 (October 1949). (145) Gudtsov, N. T., and Gelfand, K. M., Izvest. Akad. Nw‘crzlk S.S.S.R., Otd. Tekh., 1, 93-104 (1947). (146) Guy, A. G., Trans. Am. SOC.Metals, 41, 125-40 (1949). (147) Gwathmey, A. T., Leidheiser, H., Jr., and Smith, G. P., Natl. Advisory Comm. Aeronaut., Tech. Note 1460 (June 1948). (148) Haines, G. S., IND.ENQ.CHEM.,41, 2792-7 (1949). (149) Hall, D. W., and Hartley, K., Mond Gen. Reference Sheet, Ser. 648 (Nov. 19, 1949). (150) Hallett, M. M., Foundw Trade J., 86, 29-31 (Jan. 13, 1949). (151) Halls, E. E., Sheet Metal In&.. 26, 2127-30, 2136 (October 1949). (152) Hamjian, H. J., and Lidman, W. G., Natl. Advisory Comm. Aeronaut., Tech Note 1948 (September 1949). (153) Harkins, F. G., Welding J., 29, No. 1, 39-125 (1950). (154) Harmer, D. M., Kolachov, P. J., Smith, L. A., and Wilkie. H. F., Chem. Eng. Progress, 46, 203-8 (1950). (155) Hetaig, R. A., Iron Coal Trades Reu.. 157, No. 4216,1474 (1948). (156) Hicks, T. G., Paper Trade J.,130, 16, 18-19 (May 4, 1950). (157) Hicks, T. G., Rayon & Synthetic Textiles, 30, 11, 51-3 (1949). (158) Hills, R. C., and Dufour, M. F., Patent Gas., 623, 829 (June 21, 1949).

2OOO

INDUSTRIAL A N D ENG INEERING CHEMISTRY

(159) Hitchcock, J. O., Metal I d . , 74, 439-41 (June 3, 1949). (160) Hoertz, N., and Rogers, R. M., S.A.E. Journal, 57, No. 12, 71-3 (1949). (161) Hoffman, C. A., Ault, G. M., and Gangler, J. J., Natl. Advisory Comm. Aeronaut., Tech. Note 1836 (March 1949). (162) Hoffman, C. A., and Yaker, C., Ibid., 2052 (March 1950). (163) Honda, K., and Shirakawa, Y., Sci. Repls. Research Inst., Tdhoku Univ., 1, 9-15 (May 1949). (164) Hornfeck, A. J., Trans. A m . SOC.Mech. Engrs., 71, 121-33 (1949). (165) Hotchkise, A. G., and Webber, H. M., Gen. Elec. Rev., 51, NO. 11, 29-85: NO. 12, 41-8, 52 (1948): NO. 2, 37-44; NO.3,25-30; N0.4,25-8; NO.5,30-7; NO.6,3341; No.7, 3240: No. 8, 26-9: No. 9,3843; No. 11, 30-7; No. 12, 46-54 (1949); NO. 2, 43-50 (1950). (166) Hughes, D. J., Spat?;,W. D. B., and Goldstein, N., Phm. Rev., 75, 1781-7 (June 15, 1949). (167) Hunt, G. L., BIOS Final Rept. 30 (Aug. 25, 1945). (168) H u n k , R., Mond Gen. Reference Sheet (Feb. 4, 1940). (169) Ikenberry, L. C., and Canfield, J. J., Finish, 6, No. 6,53 (1949). (170) International Nickel Co., Inc., Tech. Bult. T-6 (October 1949). (171) Ivensen, V. A., Zhur. Tekh. Fiz., 17, No. 11, 1315-20 (1947). (172) Jacquet, P. A., Metal Finishing, 47, No. 5,48-54; No. 6, 83-92; NO.7, 58-64: NO.9, 60-7 (1949). (173) Jaffee, R. I., Beidler, E. I., and Ramsey, R. H., Trans. Am. SOC.Metals, 41,480-79 (1949). (174) Javita, A. E., Elec. Mfg., 45, No. 2, 74-81, 186-204 (1950). (175) Jellinghaua, W., and Schlechtweg, H., Ann. Physik, 2, Ser. 6, 161-77 (1948). (176) Johns,C.R.,andBaldwin, W. M., Jr.,J. Metnls, 1,No. 10 (1949). (177) Jones, W. E., Jr., and Wilkes, G. B., Jr., Am. Soc. Testing Materials, Preprint 35 (1950). (178) Kapnicky, J. A., Fairbanks, H. V., and Koehler, W. A., J . Am. Ceram. SOC.,32, 305-8 (1949). (179) Kaye, H., Brit. Petroleum Equipment News, 1, No. 4, 27-31 (1949). (180) Keating, F. H., Intern. Chem. Eng. & Process Ind., 31, No. 4, 176-80 (1950). (181) Kennedy, R. J., Wyckoff, H. O., and Snyder, W. A., J. R e search Natl. Bur. Standards,44,No. 15742 (1950). (182) Kimpel, R. F., and Cook, R. L., Finish, 6, No. 6,50 (1949). (183) Kinsey, H. V., and Stewart, M. T., Can. J. Research, 27, 8098 (February 1949). (184) Knapp, B. B., Metal Finishing, 47, No. 12, 42-6 (1949). (185) Knight, G. C., Brit. Veterinary J., 105, 294-304 (August 1949). (186) Knight, J. J., Nature, 163, 839-40 (May 28, 1949). (187) Kopelman, B., and Gregg, C. C., Trans. Am. SOC.Metals, 41, 293-302 (1949). (188) Krisch, A., Mitt. Kaiser Wilhelm Inst. EiSenfOrSCh,Ung,27, No. 1. 1-12 (1944). (189) Kubaachewski, O., and Goldbeck, von O., J. Inst. Metals, 76, 255-67 (November 1949). (190) Kurtz, J. (to Callite Tungsten Corp.), U. 8.Patent 2,471,630; Patent Goa.,622, No. 5, 1437 (1949). (191) LaQue, F. L., and Clarke, K. H. J., Pulp and Paper Mag. Can., 50, No. 3 (1949). (192) Lazan, B. J., Trans. Am. Soc. Testing Materials, 49, 757-87, 799-803 (1949). (193) Lebens, J. C., Elec. Mfg., 44, 86-91, 180, 182, 184 (August 1949). (194) Ley, W., Sci. American, 180, No. 5, 30-9 (1949). (195) Libsah, J. F., Both, E., Beckman, G. W., Warren, D., and Franklin, R. J., J . Metals, 188, No. 2 (1950). (196) Littman, M., Elec. Eng., 68, No. 11, 977-9 (1949). (197) Long, J. R., Metal Progress, 55, 364-5 (1949). (198) Luce, W. A., Chem. Eng., 56, No. 8, 233-4 (1949). (199) Ibid., No. 12,213 (1949). (200) McCaig, M., Proc. Phys. SOC.,62, 652-6 (October 1949). (201) McClure, F. N., Elec. Eng., 69, No. 6, 538-43 (1950). (202) McCutchwn, D. M., Non-Destructive Testing, 7, No. 8 , 7-14 (1948-49); J. Inst. Metals, 16, 668 (June 1949). (203) Machlin, E. S., Natl. Advisory Comm. Aeronaut., Tech. Note 1489 (January 1948). (204) Macklin, R. L., P h w . Rev., 76,595-997 (Sept. 1,1949). (205) MacLean, G. E., Indwt&l Sheet Metal, 1, No. 5,2€+31 (1949). (206) Maienschein, F., and Meem, J. L., Jr., Phys. Rev., 76, 894.903 (Oct. 1,1949). (207) Manson, R. K., Hampson, C., Jackson, F., Carty, J., McFarlane, J. W., and Brown, 9. P.. BIOS Final Rept. 384 (Oct. 28, 1945) (Nov. 16,1946). (208) Marshall, W. K. B., Sheet Metal I d . , 26, 2427-32, 2434, 2436, 2438, 2440 (November 1949). (208) Mammoto. H.,and Saito, H., Sci. Repte. Researcb Inst., T4hoku UnC., 1, 17-22 (May 1949).

Vol. 42, No. 10

(210) Metcalfe, A. G., Metal Treatment, 16, No. 60, 236-48 (winter 1949-50). (211) Michel, A., Tech. Sci. Aeronaut., No. 3, 164-8 (1948). (212) Moore, D. G., Richmond, J. C., and Harrison, W. No, Natl. Advisory Comm. Aeronaut., Tech. Note 1731 (October 1948). (213) Morgan, D. W, R., Mech. Eng., 72, No. 4, 327-8 (1950). (214) Muir, G. P., Tool Eng., 22, No. 6, 3C-1 (1949). (215) Ibid., 23, No. 2, 38-41 (1949). (216) Nachtman, J. S., Patent Gas., 629, 274 (Dec. 6, 1949). (217) Nelson, G. A., Petroleum Processing, 4, No. 5, 540-3 (1949). (218) Nelson, W. L., Oil & Gas J., 48, 74 (Jan. 19, 1950). (219) Nippes, E. F.,Pfluger, A. R., and Slaughter, G. M., V e l d i n g J . , 29, No. 3, 1345-10s (1950). (220) Nixon, A. C., Lehwalder, D. C., and Cheney, H. A. (to Shell Development Co.), Patent Gaz., 623, No. 1, 249 (June 7, 1949); U. S. Patent 2,472,610. (221) Olive, T.R., Chem. Eng., 56, No. 10, 107-13, flowsheet 172-5 (1949). (222) Orbaugh, M. H., Metal Finishing, 47, No. 11, 53-5, 59 (1949). (223) Osgood, B. H., Industrial Sheet Metal, 1, No. 7, 25-8 (1949). (224) Ovohinnikov, L. N., Zhur. Anal. Khim., 1947, 225-8. (225) Park, L. H., Sheet Metal Inds., 26, 1935-46 ((September 1949). (226) Parker, R. J., Gen. Elec. Rev., 52, No. 9, 16-20 (1949). (227) Patterson, M. C., Paper Trade J:,129, 33-5 (Nov. 3, 194,9). (228) Pawlek, F., J. Inst. Metals, 17, 53 (October 1949). (229) Ibid., p. 67. (230) Peck, C. E., Machinist, 93, 212-16 (June 4, 1949). (231) Potts, R. H., and McBride, G. W., Chem. Eng., 57, No. 2, 124-7, flowsheet 172-5 (1950). (232) Price, N. C. (to Lockheed Aircraft Corp.), U. S. Patent 2,471,892; Patent Gas. 622, No. 5, 1502 (1949). (233) Prine, W. Ha, Materials and Methods, 30, 43-6 (December 1949). (234) Rapatz, F., and Hummitzsch, W., Arch. Eisenhattenw., 8, No. 12, 555-6 (1935). (235) Rathenau, G. W., and Custers, J. F. H., Philipe Research Repts., 4, 241-60 (August 1949). (236) Raub, E., and Plate, W., 2.Metallkunde, 40, 206-14 (1949). (237) Rees, W. P., Burns, B. D., and Cook, A. J., J. Iron Steel Inst., 162, 325-36 (July 1949). (238) Reininger, H.,J. Inst. Metals, 16,563 (May 1949). (239) Richardson, W. H., Metallurgia, 40, 3-14 (May 1949). (240) Ritzenthaler, P. J., Iron Age, 165, 98-101 (April 6, 1950). (241) Roberts, W. van B., and Burns, L. L., Jr., RCA Rea., 10,34865 (September 1949). (242) Robinson, F. E., J . Inst. Metals, 16, 637 (June 1949). (243) Rocca, R., and Bever, M. B., J . Metals, 188, No. 2, 327-33 (1950). (244) Rosen, E., Metal Finishing, 47, No. 4, 60-5 (1949). (245) Rosenbaum, B. M., Natl. Advisory Comm. Aeronaut., Tech. Note 1580 (July 1948). (246) Rothery, J. L., and An, W.,Nature, 164, 1004-5 (Dec. 10,1949). (247) Rylander, A. E., Tool Engr., 23,42-3 (August 1949). (248) Saldin, H. B., and DeHuff, P. G., Trans. Am. SOC.Mech. Eng,, 71, 605-12 (August 1949). (249) Salpeter, J. L., J . Inst. Metals, 16, 545 (May 1949). (250) Schichtel, K., Ib& 17, 64 (October 1949). (251) Schindler, A. I., and Pugh, E. M., Phys. Rev., 76, No. 7, 176 (1949). (252) Schmid, E., and Thomas, H., Metab Rev., 23, No. 5, 39 (1950). (253) Scott, H., and Gordon, R. B., Patent Gaz., 624, No. 2, 473 (July 12, 1949); U. 9. Patent 2,475,642 (to Westinghouse Electric Corp.). (264) Searle, H. E., LaQue, F. L., and Dohrow, R. H., Journde vinicole, No. 6439, 5 (Dec. 8, 1948). (255) Shaw, A. E., Phys. Rex, 75, 1011-13 (April 1, 1949). (256) Siegbahn, K., and Ghosh, A., Ibid., 76, 307-8 (July 15, 1949). (257) Silsbee, N. F., Aero Digest, 59, 38-9, 106, 108, 110 (August 1949). (258) Silverstein, A., J. Aeronaut. Sci., 16, No. 4, 197-226 (1949). (259) Smoluchowaaki, R., and Burgess, H., Phgs. Reo., 76, 309-10 (July 15, 1949). (260) Spannuth, H. T., J. A m . Oil Chemists’ SOC., 26, 618-22 (1949). (261) Spicer, K. M., Welding J., 28, No. 9, 862-61 (1949). (262) Stanley, W. A., We2ding Eng., 35,No. 1,344: No.2,224 (1950). (263) Starr, B., Chem. Eng., 56, No. 8, 90-5. flowsheet 140-3 (1949). (264) Stewart, W. C., and Ellinghausen, H. C., Tram. Am. 80c. Mech. Eng., 71, 613-20 (August 1949).


October 1950

(265) Stirling, J. F., J . Znst. Metals, 17,388 (January 1950). (266) Stoner, E. C., and Rhodes, P., Ibid., 17, 9 (September 1949). (267) Street, R., and Wooley, J. C., Proc. Phys. Soc., 61, No. 391-2 (1948). (268) Tauae, J. E., and Tausz, M., BIOS-FIAT Tech. Bull., T-25 (April 21, 1937). (269) Teeple, H. O., Proc. Am. Petroleum Inst., 28H,No. 3, 36-43 (1948). (270) Thomas, A. D. (to General Electric Co.), Brit. Patent 621,013; Mond Gm. Reference Sheet, Ser. 627 (June 18, 1949). (271) Thomas, D. G., and Kurbatov, J. D., Phys. Rev., 77, No. 1,

-151-2 ---

(1950). ~

(272) Tietz. H. D., Patent Gaz., 622, No. 6, 1446 (1949). (273) Tifft, D. A., Ibid., 634, No. 1, 299 (May 2, 1950); U. S. Patent 2,506,526 (to Chrome-Gold Alloys, Inc.). (274) Tour, S., and Fletcher, L. S., Iron Age, 164, 78-9 (July 21, 1949). Treseder, R. S., and Wachter, A., Corroswn, 5, No. 11, 383-91 (1949). Tricker, R. E., J . I m t . Metals, 75,881-98 (July 1949). Tuttle, A. S., Pulp and Paper Mag. Can., 49, 74-80 (April 1948). Tyrrell, J. F., Trans. Am. SOC.Metals, 42,405-38 (1950). Vandermast, A. P., U. 8. Naval Eng. Expt. Sta., Serial EESB3254-H,PB 15132 (1942). Waindle, R. F., Metal Progreae, 56, 808-11 (Deoember 1949). Wakefield, J. E., Am. Machiniat, 93, 80-2 (July 28, 1949). Wakefield, J, E., Chem. Eng., 56, No. 7, 96-7 (1949). Ward, L., Metallurgia, 41, 3-7 (November 1949).

2001

(284) Webb, C. D., Patent Uaaa., 623, 1154 (June 28, 1949); U. 8. Patent, 2,474,643 (to Carboloy Co., Inc.). (285) Weeton, J. W., Natl. Advisory Comm. Aeronaut., Tech. Note 1938 (October 1949). (286) Weil, L., Compt. rend., 228, 1681-2 (May 16, 1949). (287) Wensch, G. W., Metal Progress, 57, No. 4,488 (1960). (288) Went, J. J., Phyuica, 15,703-10 (September 1949). (289) Wesley, W. A., Sellers, W. W., and Roehl, E. J., Proc. Am. EZectroplalers Soc., 36, 79-92 (1949). (290) Whewell, C. S., TwliZe Recurder, 67, No. 800, 102-6 (1949). (291) Whitman, M. J., and Repko, A. J., Natl. Advisory Comm. Aeronaut., Tech. Note 1914 (July 1949). (292) Wilkes, G. B.,Jr., Trans. SOC. Mech. Bag., 71, 631-4 (August 1949). (293) Williams, A. E., E ~ QB. o i h House Rev., 63, No. 3 , 77-9 (1948). (294) Williams, R., Jr., Chem. Eng., 56, No. 7, 9 2 4 (1949). (295) Williams, 8. R., Metul Progress, 56, 811-13 (December 1949). (296) Wilson, H. W., and Curran, 6. C., Phil. Mag., 40, 631-6 (June 1949). (297) Wil’terdink, P. I., Natl. Advisory Comm. Aeronaut., Reeearch M m a r u Z u m ESF16 (Sept. 1, 1949). (298) Wirth, L., Jr., Power, 93, No. 11,98-101 (1949). (299) Wohlfarth, E. P., Phil. Mag., 40,1095-111 (1949). (300) Wohlfarth, E. P., Proc. Rou. Soc., 195A, 434-62 (1949). (301) Woodard, D. H., J. Metub, 1, No. 10 (1949). (302) Young, M. H., Aeronaut. E w . Rm., 8, No. 5, 39-40 (1949). (303) Zeh, H. P., Oil Urn J.,48,99-100,103 (Aug. 11,1949). RECEIVBD July 26, IQSO.

PLASTICS G . M. KLINE, National Bureau of Standarde, Washington, D.

C.

T

4 United States Tariff Cornmiasion recently announced that approximately 1.5 billion pounds of plastic were produced in 1949 (114). This total included 290 million pounds of phenolics, 240 million pounds of styrene resins, 300 million pounds of vinyls, and 315 million pounds of alkyds. In 1939 the total production of synthetic resins reported by the United States Tariff Commission was 213 million pounds. The tremendous increase in the variety and volume of production of plastics in the United States during the past decade has been accompanied by a remarkable diversification of end uses of these materials in commerce and industry. Marked progress has been made in this respect in the chemical engineering field as will be evident in this review.

to metals and ceramics is obtained. The cured resins have good mechanical and dielectric properties and are resistant to chemicals (82, 91). Sheets, rods, tubes, and special cast shapes of a proprietary resin (Hysol6000) of this type are available for use in electroplating barrel construction, chemical piping and fittings, machine parts including gears, electrical insulation in equipment used under corrosive and high humidity conditions, and textile e q u i p ment. Other formulations of this resin are marketed as chemically resistant concrete floor enamels, protective coatings for racks, tanks, and ducts, and both cold-setting and heat-cured adhesives for bonding metals, glass, hard rubber, wood, porcelain, and other materials (67).

EPOXY RESINS

A relatively new type of plastic, the epoxy resins, is based on ethylene oxide or its homologs or derivatives. The earliest commercial product of thir3 type is Carbowax, made by polymerization of ethylene oxide; it is a straight-chain thermoplastic polymer. Compounds which have ethylene oxide groups at both ends are capable not only of chain formation but also of c r o w linking, thus leading to insoluble and infusible substances. Such compounds can be made by condensation of epichlorohydrin and bisphenol. The unmodified resins (Epon and Devran) can be cured by baking with suitable hardening agents or the resins can be esterified with fatty acids to produce varnish-type materials (86). Another group of thermosetting epoxy resins is being supplied for use as adhesives, casting compounds, and surface coatings. The basic resin (Araldite) is a polyarylepoxyethane characterized by having chain molecules of aliphatic-aromatic structure with a reactive ethylene oxide group at each end. Hardening agents, such as metals, alkalies, organic bases, acid anhydrides, and compounds containing active hydrogen, cure these epoxy resins without the formation of volatile by-products. Very little shrinkage occur8 during the curing process and excellent adhesion

ETHYLENE POLYMERS

Liners for steel and fiber shipping containers are being made of extruded polyethylene film, which provides a chemically resistant and inert packaging material, saves on shipping costs, and eliminates cleaning of drums (2@. Improved devices are available for coating shipping containers and chemical equipment by hotmelt flame spraying of polyethylene; addition of 0.5% curbon black improves the adhesion of the coating to metals (42). A method for applying polyethylene on the interior of steel shipping containers in a continuous coating approximately 10 mils thick has been developed on a production basis. All units are spark tested a t 20,000 volts to ensure freedom from porosity. The linings have shown satisfactory resistance to diversified products such as hydrochloric acid, fluoroboric acid, quaternary ammonia compounds, detergents, dyestuffs, sodium hypochlorite solutions, hydrofluoric acid, wetting agents, nitric acid, sodium hydroxide, ammonium hydroxide, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid (41). A self-bonding electrical tape (18) is among the recently described applications of polyethylene (108). New techniques and devices have been developed for the heat-sealing and flame-sealing

Nickel and High-Nickel Alloys

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