I I A New Analytical Feature
H o w should a very with plants in many parts of me worm organize ITS analyrical group or groups? In this, the third installment of the Report for Management series, J. R. Churchill of Alcoa explains how that industrial giant guards the quality of its products with an analytical unit at each manufacturing center; how these groups are coordinated through the Analytical Chemistry Division of Aluminum Research Laboratories. This particular case study will be very helpful to management, for it tells the story of the analytical organizational setup of one of the largest and most successful companies in the world, a company which from its very inception has under-
IN WINE cork chips are to be expected
IN ETHER they’re a headache
Our new ANHYDROUS ETHERcan is now closed with a plastic snap cap! This means no cork chips to contaminate the improved productand no pop-offs either. Next time you order ANHYDROUS ETHER,specify “Snap Cap.” Also supplied in regular screw-cap bottles for those who insist on seeing what’s going on.
M E R C K & CO.,INC.
Precision Tools
Manufacturing Chemists
for Accurate Analysis
R A H W A Y ,
N E W
J E R S E Y
Q Merck a Co.. Inc.
For further information, circle number 10 A on Readers’ Service Card, page 51 A
10 A
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
REPORT FOR MANAGEMENT analytical training, and by shortsighted analytical chemists who find in it a means of avoiding responsibility. In this discussion, it is assumed t h a t the analytical department meets its full responsibility and therefoie acts in either an authoritative or strongly advisory capacity in each of the following areas : 1. Planning of t h e analytical program. 2 . Sampling with all of its ramifications. 3. Selection of analytical procedures, including development and adaptation of methods as needed. 4. Performance of analyses and determinations. 5 . Measurement and control of precision and accuracy of analysis. 6. Interpretation and application of results. 7. General information service concerning matters of composition and analysis.
This is not intended to imply that the analytical department bears the sole responsibility in each of these categories. Indeed, it is usually only one member of a technical or administrative team which collectively makes the decisions and forms the policies required. Planning the Analytical Program
Long-range planning involves decisions as to the types and extent of analytical service t o be provided for future needs, providing staff and equipment and establishing t’he organization and channels of communication required to make optimum use of the service rendered. Long-range planning is, of course, a management function, but top management must rely on the analytical department for the information and counsel needed to reach ’ correct tleci.sions. Shoi,t-range planning involves the everyday decisions that must be made concerning the what’s, how’s, and when’s of anal>-tical service. The department must feel and exercise a strong responsibilit’y for fitting the analytical program to the current needs of the W O I ~ ~ S . It must have a voice in determining the type and number of samples to be analyzed, the specific determinations to be made, and the end use of the analytical result’s. It must weigh the advantages of alternative methods of quality control and historical evaluation and plan its service work to maximum benefit of the company. As in all types of indust’rial management, economics is the essential controlling factor in planning the analytical program. This does not necessarily mean running the laboratory a t minimum cost. It means planning
and executing the analytical service in such a way that maximum economic benefit will result t o the company. I n a works laboratory, this may mean the use of much more expensive equipment and more personnel than would be used if the emphasis were placed exclusively on cost per determination. I n many cases, the internal efficiency of the laboratory as measured by cost per determination is intentionally sacrificed to achieve large benefits in plant efficiency. I n research and development work. the analytical department has a strong contribution t o make at the planning stage. When a research problem involves composition as a variable, it is important that the analytical chemiqt be consulted a t an early stage, and generally he should participate in the design of the experiment. Very often his knowledge of composition and his familiarity with methods of sampling and analysis lead to a more efficient experiment than would be possible without his help. It is a responsibility of the analytical department to inquire into the investigational work of its customers and make sure that the plan of attack is logical and efficient in $0 far as analytical chemistry is involved. The responsibility for long-range planning in Alcoa’e analytical program is assigned primarily to the Analytical Chemistry Division of illuminum Research Laboratories. This division works in close cooperation with management and technical people throughout the company and maintains close liaison with the works laboratories. Shortrange planning is. of course, largely in the hands of local laboratories and their customers. Both in works laboratories and in research, every effort is made to establish close and direct contact between the analytical department and its customers, so that the plan of attack permits effective use of the department’s services. Meetings are held between analytical people and representatives of the departments they serve. and a consistent effort is made to persuade analytical customers to discuss their problems with the analytical department. I n research work, this planning function is often facilitated by having a member of the analytical group serve directly on the research team handling a particular problem.
1
Faster, easier, better
1
I 1 at the Turn of a Dial
Dimensions: 8%” h., 181/z” w., 14’/z”
FISHER OSCILLATING HOT PLATE T h e Fisher Oscillating Hot Plate assures rapid and complete mixing, dissolving, precipitation or evaporation without spattering a t a constant 216 rpm, with or without heat. 2000 watt cast-in-aluminum heating element, operating a t 200” F to 700” F surface temperatures, gives faster, more uniform heat distribution. Stepless control allows operator to dial and duplicate the exact heat every time, all the time, for maximum effectiveness with minimum attention. Heater and oscillator operate independently or together. Send for details The new Fisher Catalog Supplement, page 53. gives specifications on the Fisher Oscillating Hot Plate. Send for your COPY
FISHER SCIENTIFIC
Sampling
The truism that a n analysis can be no more meaningful than the s a m d e on which it is made cannot be overem- , phasized‘ The department must assume and exercise a great deal of responsiblity in this field, regardless of whether the act of sampling is under 1
V O L U M E 2 8 , N O . 1, J A N U A R Y 1 9 5 6
u
d.
Boston
Detroit
St. Louis
Buffalo
New York
Washington Montreal Toronto
Chicooa
tle;;ia-nd
Philcrdelnhia Pittsburgh
America’s Largest Manufacturer. Distributor o f Laboratory Appliances and Reagenf Chemicals B-’-A
Circle NO. 11 A
on Readers’ Service Card, page 51 A
11 A
REPORT FOR MANAGEMENT
its supervision. Khenever
TO ANALYTICAL CHEMISTS If you are an analytical chemist, this handy, desk-size S&S Filtration Chart belongs in your laboratory. Analytical laboratories have long been familiar with standardized, high-quality S&S Analytical Filter Papers. Now, here is complete data on the relative retention values of S&S Analytical Filter Papers, and other brands, in convenient size for ready reference. This data makes it possible to tell at a glance which grade of paper to select for a given analysis. Send for your valuable, free S&S Filtration Chart. Act now! Use the handy coupon below! S&S ULTRA FILTERS S&S dual-purpose ultra filters-
Methods of Analysis
smooth-surfaced membranes possessing extremely uniform niicrostructure-are ideal for filtration of colloids, proteins, and micro-organisms,as well as dialysis and osmosis, Mail coupon below for your free S&S Ultra Filter Catalog.
MAIL
THIS C O U P O N TODAY
I m m m m I I m m CARL SCHLEICHER 8 SCHUELL CO. I Keene, New Hampshire, Dept. AC.16 Send me your FREE I 0 S&S Filtration Chart I 0 S&S Ultra Filter Catalog Name I I IC i t y A t a t e
I I I I I I
I.=--m.Immrl Circle NOS. 12 A-1, 12 A-2 on Readers’ Service Card, page 51 A
12 A
possible, the analytical department should specify the sampling procedure and police its execution. Khen this is not feasible, it must be completely and accurately informed as to the procedure and circumstances of sampling, so that it can attack the analytical pioblem intelligently and provide meaningful interpretation of the data from the sample provided. Plans and provision for sampling must be included in the design of the experiment, and the significance of the samples considered in final interpretation whenever the evperiment involves composition as an important parameter. Standard methods of sampling are used throughout Alcoa for materials regularly analyzed. The Analytical Chemistry Division of Aluminum Research Laboratories is broadly responsible for developing, surveying, and approving sampling methods. To this end, it works in close cooperation Tvith the works laboratories and mith metallurgical, engineering, and production people. The works laboratory is responsible for maintaining proper sampling practices in the area it serves. I n most metallurgical operations, the act of sampling is performed by people in the production and operating departments. I n mining and refining operations, the analytical department may have either direct or indirect control over sampling. I n all cases, the analytical department is responsible for continuous surveillance over sampling operations, detecting and reporting departures from standard methods or good practices, and advising its customers concerning sampling problems.
All analytical departments have a more or less continuous problem of methodology. I n some cases, the problem is one of selection among available methods. I n other cases, the development of a new method or the modification in some existing method is indicated. I n all cases, the analytical department must know its own methods very thoroughly as to applicability, reliability, and limitations and it must have a broad knowledge of the methods used by other laboratories. Although accuracy should be the most generally sought attribute in selecting a method, other attributes such as speed, convenience, ease of execution, and economy must be considered and may even be controlling factors in a particular case. T o render consistently effective service, the industrial laboratory must employ standard methods of analysis. By a “standard method” is meant one
that has been more or less formally adopted by the laboratory and is consistently followed in all determinations of a particular category. -1dherence to standard methods is desirable for a variety of reasons. First. the standard methods will naturally be those which have been most thoroughly explored and found to be most satisfactory for their intended applications. Second, the efficiency and reliability of a method improve with continued application, and any analyst n-ill get the best results with familiar and often-used methods. Third, conformance to standard niet,hods is essential for comparisons among data obtained a t different times and by different laboratories. This is especially important in the frequent case in which alternate methods give systematically different results. For similar I’easone, all laboratories within a company should adopt the same standard methods in so far as they ai’e applicable. Further than this, industry-wide standardization is benefirial. For intercompany comparisons, it is a t least necessary to show equivalence if not identity of standard methods. The efforts of the ASTN in this direction are highly laudable. The responsibility for standardizing procedures clearly rests with the analytical department in a company having only one such department. When two or more analytical departments serve a company, it is generally necessary to place the responsibility for standardization of methods on one laboratory or on a coordinating person, group, or committee. Alcoa is fairly representative of the multilaboratory situation. The primary responsibility for the development and standardization of analytical methods for all Alcoa laboratories is assigned to the dnalytical Chemistry Division of Aluminum Research Laboratories. Intercompany standardization of analytical methods has been largely achieved in the aluminum industry through the pre-eminence of Alcoa’s analytical chemists through the years and through the company’s policy of making its methods readily available to others. -4lcoa and ASTM methods for aluminum alloys are essentially the same-a result of the fine coordinating work of that society and the participation of Alcoa in its activities. Unfortunately, it is a rare analytical department that can accumulate standard methods to meet all its problems. Trirtually every laboratory must modify, improvise, and invent methods from time to time. Even the so-called standard methods must be continuously studied in relation to their application, and no analytical department other than a routine laboratory of very limited ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
scope can meet its responsibilities n-ithout a certain amount of development and research.
Ir n GEGiil Instruments -
I
Precision and Accuracy
Every analytical person from the professional chemist to the routine determinator must feel a strong personal responsibility for the precision and accuracy of his results. The analytical department, as a whole, must also accept and meet the responsibility for maintaining an optimum balance between maximum precision and accuracy on the one hand, and such opposing considerations as speed, cost, and efficiency, on the other. Compromises that must be made between these attributes must be based on the department’s best judgment as to the basic requirements of its customers. Ideally, the analytical department n ishes its results to be highly accurate. In many cases, however, when the purpose of analysis is comparative, precision is the important thing and a sizable bias is tolerable. In process rontrol work, expediency may justify a method of considerable bias, and many such methods are knolvingly applied in industry. The most important aspect of precision and accuracy is that the analytical department continuously h o w and make known the accuracy of its results, and achieve that compromise between the ideal and the practical that will serve the company best. Throughout Alcoa, broad responsibility for the measurement and control of analytical precision and accuracy is assigned to the Analytical Chemistry Division of Aluminum Research Laboratories. This in no way relieves local analytical management of its responsibility in this area, but rather is intended to help them in meeting this responsibility. Samples are selected in a systematic pattern from all laboratories and checked by the Analytical Chemistry Division by umpire methods. Other samples are exchanged among laboratories and results compared. iln extensive verification service is conducted under which any company laboratory can have its analytical work checked on request by merely sending the samples to the research laboratory along with the original results. L4great deal of work of a statistical nature is done to measure the precision of instruments, such as the Quantometer, both as a measure of the current precision of results and as a means of guiding the over-all maintenance, calibration, and replacement programs. Of great help in the measurement and maintenance of precision and accuracy is the use of standard samples. Basic standards for chemical analysis are proV O L U M E 28, N O . 1, J A N U A R Y 1 9 5 6
41 2
Liquid Scintillation Spectrometers Automatic Fraction Collectors
3 Windowless and Flo-Window Counters TRI-GARB LIQUID SCINTILLATION
=
-
ous types may also be readily counted. Certain materials t h a t are not soluble in liquid phosphors may be counted in suspensions.
Request
314
AUTOMATIC FR ACT10 N C 0 L LECTORS For precise column chromatography. Provides both time a n d drop counting. Can be furnished for t i m e o p e r a t i o n only a t commensurately lower cost. Drops from column fall directly into test tubes. There are no intermediate collecting vessels, glass arms, or funnels to cause mixing, contamination, evaporation, etc. This is important where accurate separations are required or where radioactive tracers are used.
Request Bu/lef;,,
230
WINDOWLESS AND FLO-WINDOW COUNTERS Both types can be used for Geiger and proportional operation. Windowless Flow Counter. M o d e l 200A, p r o v i d e s ma.ximum sensitivity for counting solid samples which emit very soft radiations. Has essentially unlimited life. Physical arrangement of sample in chamber makes it possible t o achieve full 2 B geometry. Fio-Window Counter, Model 210, features a very thin metalized window of D u Pont Mylar which offers a minimum of obstruction to low energy radiation. Isolates counting chamber from sample. Eliminates static charge, vapor effects, accidental contamination, etc.
Request
200
Instrument Company DEPT. D P. 0 . B O X 4 2 8 For further infonnation, circle numbers 13 A-1, 13 A-2, 13 A-3
LA
on
GRANOE.
ILL.
Readers’ Service Card, Page 51 A
13 A
- a new name in the oil testing lab
With I.eco’s X519 Induction Furnace, you can cut combustion analysis time from the usual 1-6 hours to just 3-10 minutes!
REPORT FOR MANAGEMENT vided in several fields of analysis by the Sational Bureau of Standards. Most laboratories, however, must supplement these with more comprehensive or specialized standards. I n Alcoa, for example, over 5000 individual standard samples are produced annually, covering the various aluminum alloys, atomized aluminum, bauxite, alumina, and other materials of importance to the industry. About 60% of these standards are sold to laboratories of custoniers, competitors, government agencies, and others outside Alcoa. and the remainder is consumed internally. These have virtually become industrywide standards and this, like the industry-wide standardization of procedures, is a healthy and desirable situation. Interpretation of Analytical Results
4 Ii
Carbon analyzer .
, .for cracking catalyst and carbon burning rote)
Leco carbon determinator gives extreme accuracy in measurinp carbon in crarking catalvst and i n determining carbon burning rates.
Complete ca tolyst activity testing unit” Determines the activity, carbon producing and gas factnrs of catalysts in one run. Operating variables, feed stocks and mixes rapidlv evalnated, aids in cataiyst quality control.
* Produced under license f r o m Standard
011 Company (Indiana)
Write tor Complete Dercripiive Literaturel
Circle Nos. 14 A-1 14 A-2 14 A-3 1 4 A-4 S e r h c e Ca;d, page) 51 A
14 A
on
Readers’
The analytical department has a great responsibility in the interpretation of analytical results. This extends all the way from making each analytical report understandable, to a broad responsibility in the end use of the data. The analytical department must be ever alert for misunderstanding or misuse of the information it issues and must carry on a continuous campaign of education of and assistance to its custoniers in the application of analytical data. Analytical reports are generally characterized by symbols, abbreviations, conventions, and unwritten qualifications of statement. They are often issued in tabular form with no written explanation or interpretive material. The analytical department is clearly responsible for employing only those symbols and conventions which are understood by its customers and justified by considerations of expediency. It must make a continuous effort toward standardization of terminology, both internally and in its external communications. The broader aspects of interpretation are closely related to the other broad responsibilities discussed. Analytical results must be interpreted in the light of the validity of the sample, and the precision and accuracy of test. Decisions based on analysis may be made outside the analytical department, but it is the department’s responsibility to advise its customers concerning the validity and meaning of analytical data, so that decisions can be made logically and with best odds for being correct. The analytical department should be, and usually is, better able than anyone outside the department to judge the significance of variations in analytical results and to judge whether variations represent real differences in composition,
defects in sampling, or variables in analysis.
General Informational Service The responsibility for information service extends far beyond meeting specific requests for analytical work. The analytical department must know much more about compositions of ravmaterials, process materials, and products of the company than is usually revealed by routine acceptance, control, and specification analyses. I t must have an extensive knowledge of n-hat is typical and what is unusual. It must ivatch trends of composition and be alert for any which might affect company operations. It must be continuously alert for unexpected impurities or compositional peculiarities which might not be anticipated by its analytical customers in their requests for service. It must know the characteristic differences between its company’s products and those of competitors, and this knowledge must be kept current. It must be familiar with methods of analysis used by vendors. customers, and competitors and know how they compare in precision, accuracy, and meaning to its own methods.
Number 15 in Advances in Chemistry Series edited by the staff of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry
CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS A systematic tabular presentation of accurate data on the physical properties of 511 organic cyclic compounds compiled by R. R. Dreisbach of the Dow Chemical Co. These comprehensive and basic data were determined for specially prepared, high purity compounds. In addition to the precisely measured properties the author has calculated new values for many constants based upon his new experimental values 523 pages plus index cloth bound-$5.85 per copy
order from: Special Publication Dept. American Chemical Society 1155 Sixteenth Street, N.W. Washington 6, D. C.
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
The analytical department must not only accumulate such information, but it must transmit it to those who can apply it to the benefit of the company. Like many other responsibilities of the department, the general informational responsibility requires for its optimum utility, close liaison and well-lubricated channels of communication between the laboratory and both its direct customers and top management. Responsibility for general information on composition and analysis is shared by Alcoa's works laboratories and the Analytical Chemistry Division of Aluniinum Research Laboratories. Collectively, the analytical departments are I esponsible for obtaining and disseminating any compositional information vhich has an important bearing on the processes, products, or profits of the c'ompany, regardless of whether the information is or is not forthcoming from analytical service specifically requested. This philosophy of extending the responsibility of the individual for the over-all success of the company beyond his specific assignments is typical of ;ilcoa.
Gamma emlttlng samples inserted into a scintillation well counter are counted by Radiation Analyzer and standard scaler. Adjustable "window" of Analyzer is set to count only pulses that fall within a pre-selected portion Of the energy spectrum, thus virtually eliminating "background".
Organization and Administration
Although there is no one specific pattern of organization n-hich is applicable to even a majority of companies ~vithinour area of examination, there are a few basic requirements that must be met to achieve an optimum fit of the analytical department into the organization structure: (1) adequate direction f i om management; (2) sufficient authoiity and independence t o permit it to operate objectively and in the best interests of the company; (3) access to information concerning the processes. projects, and plans of the company; and (4) adequate channels of conimunication with all departments it serves and with the technical ~vorld outside the company. At the risk of oversimplification, all the arguments and considerations of organization in relation to industrial analysis will be divided into two categoiies: those that favor highly decentralized, dispersed analytical service dispensed by small, separate analytical groups operating independently of each other, and those that favor strong centralization with all analytical supervision converging a t a single management within the analytical organization. Decentralization and dispersion of the analytical organization have a number of distinct advantages, most important of which is that of bringing the analyst and his customer closer together. As areas of responsibility are reduced by splitting the analytical department into
with nuclear-chicago's Analyzer is available separately as an economical accessory for laboratories already having a scintillation detector and a scaler or ratemeter.
Automatic scanning and recording of spectrum energies is accomplished b y Analyzer, rate-meter, recorder and sciniiliation counter. G a m m a e n e r g y s p e c t r u m o f Cesium-tB7 i s shown on recorder chart.
NEW RADIATION ANALYZER and your present scaler and scintillation counter The advantages of pulse-height selection for background and scatter-error reduction, multiple tagging measurement and energy analysis are now available for every radioisotope laboratory. The Radiation Analyzer, connected directly t o your present scaler and scintillation counter, incorporates i n a compact single-chassis design a non-overloading linear amplifier, pulse height discriminator and extremely stable high voltage regulator. Circuitry has been designed for simplicity, stability and high reliability ,
SPECIFICATIONS Linear feedback amplifier with gain of 2500. Non-overload amplifier with delay-line shaper. Separate amplifier output. 0 Base level adjustable 0-100 volts with ten.turn potentiometer. Channel width of 0.10 volts provided by precision single turn control. Computer tubes, precision components and ultra-stable powersuppliesprovidelongtermstability. 0 Regulator for scaler high voltage supply variable from
V O L U M E 2 8 , N O . 1, J A N U A R Y 1 9 5 6
500 to 1500 volts with ten-turn potentiometer. Regula. tion factor O f 0 Overall resolution time for equal pulse pairs within 1.5 microsecond. 0 Front panel switch provides integral or differential count. 0 Provision for external base level control allows automatic scanning.
W r h today for full d e t a L
& nuc/ewm ch/cago NUCLEAR INSTRUMENT AND CHEMICAL CORPORATION 251 West Erie Street, Chicago 10, Illinois LEADERS I N M A K I N G RADIOACTIVITY COUNT For further information, circle number 15 A on Readers' Service Card, page 51 A
15 A
REPORT FOR MANAGEMENT
VOLTAGE REFERENCE SOUREE FOR RESEARCH LABORATORIES SCHOOLS PRODUCTION TESTING AMPLIFIER GAIN CHECKS OSCILLOSCOPE CALIBRATION SERVO TESTING The Sorensen VRSAC750 Voltage Reference Source i s a low cost, highly accurate regulator primarily designed for calibrating AC voltmeters in the 0-750 volt range. It i s ideal for use with nearly every power meter commercially available. Its compact design, simple operation and accurate performance make it extremely useful to the laboratory or the production shop. The VRSAC750 i s specifically designed for bench-top operall controls are within easy reach of the operator, ation , and the reference meter is clear, easy to read, and placed a t eye level to insure maximum accuracy of adjustment.
..
1 0 5 - 1 2 5 VAC, 1 8 60 2 0 . 5 cps 7 amperes maximum 1-799 v o l t s in 1 - v o l t s t e p s i O . 2 S 0 / o a t a n y v o l t a g e in 2O”-3O0C ambient 1% maximum i n t r o d u c e d by the unit
Input v o l t a g e range Input f r e q u e n c y Input c u r r e n t Output v o l t a g e Output v o l t a g e a c c u r a c y Harmonic distortion S I Z E 2 0 5 % ” h i g h , 19+””
w i d e , 12” d e e p
W E I G H T 1 1 5 pounds net
-
VRSAClO A versatile instrument for lower voltage applications featuring high accuracy a t extremely low cost. Output voltage range Calibration accuracy Input voltage Input frequency
10 mv to 1 Ov RMS in three ranges t 0 . 1 % at full scale at 60 cps
115v 110%, single phase 50.60 cps; to 400 cps with slightly less accuracy Waveform Distortion i s negligible Regulation with load 0.25% max., with load resistance higher ihan 0.5 megohm Regulation with line 10.25% max. W r i t e t o d a y for complete specificutions, performance d a t a , a n d quotations.
SORENSEN 8 COMPANY, INC.
3 7 5 FAIRFIELD AVE.
STAMFORD, C O N N .
C O N T R O L L E D P O W E R FOR RESEARCH A N D I N D U S T R Y For further information, circle number 16 A on Readers’ Service Card, Page 51 A
16 A
smaller departments serving smaller fractions of the company, the administrative level at which the management of the laboratory and its customers merge becomes lower and lower. The analytical laboratory therefore tends to be managed for the more exclusive benefit of the specific portion of the company it serves. Channels of communication between the laboratory and its customers are better under this t’ype of system, and the laboratory personnel tend to be better informed concerning the plant operations they serve because of proximity to those operations. Also, the matter of proximity reduces the time and cost of delivering samples and reports. The advantages of centralization of the analytical organization are more numerous and, perhaps, more impressive than those of decentralization. Combination of analytical laboratories into larger units almost always leads to reduced analytical costs, especially in analyses n-hich can be handled on a routine, mass-production basis. Less duplication of apparatus is required. Better balance of talent and manpower can be maintained. Highly trained analytical chemists and instrument specialists can be used to greater advantage in the larger, more diversified department resulting from centralization. Greater objectivity of analysis can be maintained in the centralized organization, since the analyst is not subject to as much direct supervisory pressure in the direction of sought-for results by lon. level management. Most important of the arguments in favor of the centralized system are those relating to the broad responsibilities of the analytical department to the company as a whole. A certain amount of standardization, coordination, consult,ation, and information service is required in most companies which cannot be supplied effectively by small, isolated laboratories throughout the company. ,4nalytical service is sometimes split between two or more departments on the basis of techniques employed. For example, spectrographic analysis is sometinies separated from “wet” chemical analysis and placed in another department, such as a physics department. The author believes that this type of departmentalization is inefficient and illogical. Spectrographs, Quantonieters, and other devices used for determining composition are tools of the analytical chemist and should be treated as such. The spectrograph is no more an exclusive tool of the physicist than is the chemical balance. It is important that the analytical department use the best tools available for the job a t hand, and supply the judgment ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
With u COLEMAN Spectrophotometer YOU C A N HAVE
Famous COLEMAN JUNIOR
COLEMAN FLAME PHOTOMETER
SPECTROPHOTOMETER
measures sodium, potassium and CALCIUM directly Direct reading. in milliequivalents per liter , , no tables . no curves . no internal standards or chemical additives needed. Easy to Use safe as a Bunsen burner. Flame will not blow out or flash back, and pressure adjustments are not critical. Exclusive Atomizer-Burner atomizes directly into flame . . , Avoids contamination from previous samples . . . no chamber to clean. Burns illuminating gas with oxygen. No explosive tank gas required. Simple, Direct-Coupled Optics . . . No slits to adjust . . . no mirrors or prisms to align. Optical filters provide spectral isolation. Low Cost, ready to operate with any modern Coleman Photometer, Junior Spectrophotometer, Universal Spectrophotometer, Coleman Galv-OMeter, Electric Colorimeter, Photo-Nephelometer, or Nepho-Colorimeter .as low as $450.00,
World’s most highly respected and widely used clinical spectrophotometer. Choice of the U.S. Armed Services Medical Corps because of its time-tested reliability and ease of use. Volumes of published analytical procedures attest its recognition and use by the highest authorities in the field of chemical analysis. No Filters. Dial the exact color by wavelengththe full range from 400 to 700 mp-no slits to adjust-no calculations to make, Widest range of sample sizes-.007 to 10 ml! Low Cost as low as $357.50.
...
Coleman Universal Spectrophotometer, a tool of wide application, with long and short path cells. Adaptable to fluorescence and haze measurements.. . . . . . . .. .As low as $635.00.
.. . .. . . . .
.. .. ...
..
.
. .. . .
Write for full details-Dept. A, Coleman Instruments, Inc., Maywood, Jllinois For further information,
V O L U M E 2 8 , N O . 1, J A N U A R Y 1 9 5 6
circle numbers
17 A-1, 1 7 A-2 on Readers’
Service
Card, page 51 A
11 A
REPORT FOR MANAGEMENT involved in selecting that tool. Independent spectrographic and wet chemical departments mean entrusting the choice of technique to the analytical customer. Efficient management and effective coordination are always difficult to achieve when two independent analytical departments, differentiated only by technique or equipment, attempt to serve the same set of customers. Although the preceding discussions might seem to indicate that a high degret of centralization is always desirable, the ideal organization is a compromise between centralization and dispersion, based on the circumstances prevailing in the particular company or plant. An example of a nearly optimum industrial organization from the analytical chemistry standpoint is provided by Alcoa. Alcoa is served by 27 works laboratories, each serving a definite segment of the company consisting of a mine, a plant, or a combination of operations within a radius of a few miles. According to Alcoa usage, “works laboratory” is the name of the analytical department serving a particular area and is used in the singular even when it might literally consist of a group of laboratories. I n all cases, only one analytical depai tment or works laboratory sei ves a given area. An idea of the magnitude of the work carried by the works laboratories may be gained from Table I. This tabulation includes only the samples and determinations officially reported and does not include replications of analysis, standardization or calibration work, research, or development.
Table
I.
Type of Plant Mining Refining Smelting Fabricating Casting Total
Circle NO. 18 A
18 A
on Readers’ Senlce
Card, 1110 51 A
directly to the works managel, to an opeiating superintendent, or to the head of an over-all technical organization of the plant or plants involved. For example, in a large casting or fabricating plant, the chief chemist reports to the chief metallurgist and in a large refining plant to the chief chemical engineer or technical superintendent. I n all cases, the lines of authority leading upward from the analytical department and from the departments or individuals it serves merge a t a sufficiently low level in the company structure to provide good coordination and liaison and a t a sufficiently high level to provide objective management in the best interests of the company. The chief chemist, as a department head, occupies a position of sufficient responsibility, prestige, and authority to assist the top management of the a orks in matters of policy. planning, and administration in so far as analytical service is involved or affected. Analytical service is decentralized in Alcoa to the extent that each laboratory is placed under the local works nianagement. but it is strongly centralized in the technical and scientific aspects of its work. This is accomplished, not by authoritarian dicta issued from a central authority, but by close coordination and cooperation effected through an efficient liaison organization. The primary responsibility for liaison among analytical departments and between the collective analytical organization and the company as a whole is assigned to the Analytical Chemistry Division of Aluminum Research Laboratories.
Work Load of Akoa’s Works laboratories for 7955
Laboratories 3
-3
7 7 7 27
An Alcoa works laboratory is definitely and distinctly a part of the 71-orks organization. The responsible head of the works laboratory normally bears the title of chief chemist, but other titles are employed when more appropriate under local circumstances. For example, in a small plant, functions such as analysis, mechanical testing, metallurgy, and quality control may be combined in such a way that a more generalized title may apply. Here. the title “chief chemist” is used for all cases, with the understanding that i t means the responsible administrative head of the analytical department. Bdministratively, the chief chemist reports
Samples 81,228 250.524
7 3 ii4o 514,692 193,632 1,761,216
Determinations 410,040 560.364 4,9991032 3,520,800 2,692,728 12,182,964
The Analytical Chemistry Division is one of 14 divisions of the research organization and reports administratively to the director of research who. in turn, reports to the top management of the company. The organizational relationship between the division and the works laboratories is purely advisory except in the specification of standard methods. The following activities are administered by the Analytical Chemistry Division for purposes of standardization, coordination, and liaison. 1. Specification of company-wide standard methods. 2. Provision of standard samples. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
New!, , , a combination Gauge a n d Control! A long-awaited addition to the distinguished Carfesian Manostat family!
Just arrived,. .a n all-glass model for the laboratory. An exclusive development of Manostat Corp. Here, for the first time, is a g a u g e permitting direct setting of absolute or differential pressure,. , a n d offering the famed sensitivity, accuracy, a n d reliability for which Cartesian Manostats a r e noted. Cartesian Manostat #9 not only controls the pressure, absolute or diff erential, but it measures it a s well. Position of float is read on a 100 mm. scale. When position is set, the corresponding pressure will be held automatically. Manostat floats available in two ranges: 0-10 mm. in 1/10 mm. divisions and 0-100 mm. in 1 mm. divisions which may be used in the same instrument. PRICE LIST MI5073 -Cartesian Manostat #9 complete with 2 floats ready for use, but without mercury M15073A-Same as M15073, but with i float only, range 0-10 mm Hg M15073B-Same as M15073, but with 1 float only, range 0-100 mm. Hg M15073H-Float only, range 0-10 mm. Hg. M15073K-Float only, range 0-100 mm Hg 'patent applied for
ea 85.00 e a 74.50 ea 79.00 ea 8.00 ea 12.50
See Your Local Laborafory S u p p l y Dealer, or Write for Bulletin ZOI
@P@&2fl
20-26 N. Moore Street, DeDt. 101. New York 13, N.Y. 19 A
VlTREOSIL@
REPORT FOR MANAGEMENT
3. Measurement of precision and accuracy on a company-wide basis. 4. Periodic inspection of laboratories. 5 , Interlaboratory visits, tonferences, and symposia. 6. Reports to management and to the various technical departments of the company on the performance of works laboratories with respect to precision, accuracy, and productivity. 7 . Consultation and assistance in design of laboratories and selection of equipment. 8. Design and manufacture of specialized analytical equipment not availalile commercially. 9. Dissemination of analytical and compositional information, both inside and outside the company. 10. Compositional surveys of raw materials, process materials, and products with particular attention to areas not fully covered by works laboratories. 11. Handling of techniml contacts \\-ith outside laboratories, institutions, societies, and associations. 12. General advisory assistance to jvorks laboratories and all other parts of the company on matters pertaining to composition or analysis.
for your most exacting
LABORATORY NEEDS VlTREOSlL TUBING TRANSPARENT
SAND SURFACE
GLAZED OR SATIN SURFAC
CHARACTERISTICS-Chemical and catalytic inertness. Usefulness up to 1000°C. and under extreme thermal shock. Homogeneity and freedom from metallic impurities. Best ultra-violet transmission (in transparent quality). STOCK SIZES, Available i all normal lengths.
BULLETIN 22 for specification and prices. 4
c
VlTREOSlL CRUCIBLES DISHES TRAYS MUFFLES * POTS RETORTS TANKS
CRUCIBLES: Permit production of compounds of real purity. No material absorption, noncatalytic, non.porous. Can be wire.wound for electrical heating. Glazed and unglazed. Immune to extreme chemical, thermal, electrical conditions. DISHES: For concentrations, evaporation, crystallizing acid solutions. A l l sizes and types. TRAYS: Many sizes available from stock. Special sizes can be .< ' ;?' supplied promptly. BULLET I N 21 for soecification
t
VlTREOSlL ELECTRIC IMMERSION HEATERS BALL 6 SOCKET JOINTS STANDARD TAPER JOINTS GRADED SEALS CORROSION RESISTANT- impervious
to all organic and inorganic chemicals even at very high temperatures regardless of the concentration of the chemical, except strong caustics and hydrofluoric acid. EXCELLENT H IG H T EM PERATU RE MCELLENT CHARACTERISTICS STRENGTH IMPERMEABLE OUTSTANDING ELECTRIC PROPERTIES. Specify item for bulletin and prices.
a
a
THERMAL A M E R I C A N FUSED Q U A R T Z CO., I N C . 18-20 Salem Street, Dover, N e w Jersey
1 1
Please send Bulletin NO-.,
I
I; Bulletin
on
Company N a m e a n d Title
ar
I I I I
E Street Zone-StateI I City I mmmmmmmmmmm Circle NO. 20 A on
20 A
Readers'
Service Card, page 51 A
All these activities are integrated with a comprehensive analytical research program and with other activities of the Analytical Chemistry Division, which include direct anal!-tical service to other divisions of research and caonsiderable activity in fields of automation and instrumentation lying outside the specific boundaries of analytical chemistry. The internal organization required for this comprehensive and complex array of work is simple and needs little discussion. The close int'erdependence of research, consultation, quality control, and actual analysis precludes any sharp organizational separation of functions. Alt'hough the division contains a number of groups concentrating on particular functional areas, the formal organization is kept flexible: informal, and sufficiently unobtrusive that it does not limit the responsibility or opportunity of t'he professional chemist in his contribution to the various avenues of service. An important feature of Alcoa organization is that the analytical departments are so related to the rest of the company that channels of authority and communication are direct, well known. and easily accessible without a superfluity of arbitrary rules and regulations. The chief chemist is under the local works management, and his contacts with his customers are close and direct. Technical contacts among the central research organization and the works laboratories are similarly direct and are not channeled up and down the management scale in crossing organizational boundaries. The Analytical Chemistry
Division is not only in direct contact with the works laboratories but with central management and technical groups which guide the over-all company program. It is a strong habit and policy of Alcoa to keep management people accessible and available and channels of communication direct and unimpeded. This carries with it the corrollary responsibilities of constant consultation, careful observance of management prerogatives, and general fair play. For example, although the Analytical Cheniistry Division communicates directly with the works laboratory, it must keep the works management and other legitimately interested people fully informed. Moreover, all actions and recommendations must be in accord with local and company policy and have the stated or implied approval of local management. The Essence of the Problem
Despite their problems of organization and delegation of responsibility, the basic problem, both of the analytical chemist and the company he serves, is one of philosophy, and when the philosophical problem is solved, the more detailed problems discussed here solve themselves. The analytical chemist must fully understand and appreciate the fact that the basic purpose of the company is to make money. The only qualification necessaq- is that the money shall be made honorably and without detriment to public welfare. H e must also accept the fact that his function is to serve that same purpose through the provision of analytical service. He must feel a strong personal responsibility extending far beyond the confines of his laboratory. According to a favorite Alcoa saying. his decisions must be those he n-ould make if he owned the company. Company management, on the othei, hand, must know what analytical chemistry is and what it can do for the company. I t must recognize analytical chemistry as a profession and distinguish it from the vocation of routine determinat,ion. The analytical department must be viewed as a service department,, but the scope of its service should extend beyond the mere performance of analytical determinations. The analytical department is a n important part of the brain and nerve system of the company and must be permitted t,o function as such. This means that the administrative policies of the company should be designed bo enable the analytical department to communicate effectively Tyith the rest of the company, to exercise authority within its area of direct responsibility, and to act as the eyes and ears of the company in matters of chemical composition. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
