JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL EDUCATION
1230
JULY-AuG., 1920
THE RELATION OF CHEMISTRY TO HEALTH AND DISEASE* MAEIONP. ADAMS, ANTIOCHCOLLEGE.YELLOW SPRINGS, OHIO
Good health is one of man's most precious possessions. It is hard to realize how much the chemist and bacteriologist have done to better living conditions until one studies the conditions which existed prior to the niueteenth century. Early man longed for health even more than we do today. He understood the value of preventive medicine;' he had learned that medicines from certain herbs cured rertain diseases-sometimes. He had no laboratory in which he could test the strength and purity of his herbs. As time passed, we find that the Arabs studied physiology and hygiene. Their surgeons understood the use of anesthetics and performed some of the most difficult operations known. At that time the practice of medicine in Europe was forbidden by the C h u r ~ h . ~ This prevented the knowledge of the Arabs from spreading to Europe. There have been several theories for the cause 01 dise;w. In primitive times, man thouxl~t sirkncss was caused b y drnion.; wl~irl~ inhahitvd the I~ody:' I t will h+ rt:mt.rnbered that later, in Bible MARION 1'. ADAMS times, many sought Jesus so that he might cast out the demons. They did not seem to believe that all sickness was caused by demons, for there were many who simply asked to he healed. Still later came the punitive theory when man believed that an outraged deity sent punishment and death for his sins.4 The Greeks and Romans believed that the vapors rising from certain
II
* Prize-winning college essay,
1928-29.
Moore, Harry H., Public Health in thz Unired Wells. H. G . , "Outline of History," p. 610. a Moore, Harry H., op. rit.. p. 13. 'Ihid., p. 73. a
Slates, pp. 3 4 .
Val.. 6, Nos. 7 AND 8
COLLEGE ESSAYS
1231
grounds were very dangerous, and night air was greatly feared."l'his false theory has been revived. During the middle ages, the alchemists earnestly, but vainly, searched for the "philosopher's stone" which would give the "elixir of life." The science of alchemy was replaced by the science of chemistry in 1 5 2 5 . V i t h i t came a doctor, Phillipus Aureolus Paracelsus Theophrastus Bombastus, who is more commonly known as Paracelsus. He argued that the body was composed of chemicals and that when the body was ill it was because of a lack of some of these chemicals, which should be replaced. Needless to say, there were a few unfortunates who suffered death when Paracelsus did not supply the proper chemical, but they gave their lives in a cause which accomplished a great deal-the union of chemistry and medicine. From this time, the doctor and the chemist worked together. The next decisive step against disease came in 1796, when Edward Jenner originated cowpox inoculation t o counteract mallp pox.^ Up to this time, the terror of smallpox had been felt by rich and poor alike, but this inoculation has saved thousands of lives yearly. During the latter part of the nineteenth century, a series of important discoveries were made which effected a great change in the knowledge of health. The fust of these was the discovery of bacteria. It might be better to term it rediscovery, for in the seventeenth century Leeuwenhoek, with his homemade microscope, had first entered this unseen and unknown world when he found his "wee beasties" in rain water.8 Pasteur rediscovered bacteria when he made his study of fermentation in an effortto benefit the wine industry of his country. Later, in 1865,9he was asked to make a study of the silkworm industry. This research was the first to show that disease is caused by small organisms, and also showed how the organisms are transmitted, and how this transmission may be checked.I0 He saved many dollars annually for these industries, but he did not think so much about this saving; instead he looked toward the future, and he asked himself just how much influence this hitherto unknown world had on human beings. Now that the enemy had been recognized, the next question was how to overcome disease. Pasteur and his followers dreamed of health for all and set out t o attain it. The h t step was vaccination, which Pasteur stumbled upon when he was working on chicken cholera. Then he developed progressive vaccination when he was studying the deadly anthrax Moore, Hany H., op. cit., p. 73.
' Chemistry course.
Ibid., p. 76. DeK~uif,Paul, "Microbe Hunters," pp. 10-11. *American Public Health Association, Half Century of Pub& Health, p. 15. lo Caldwell, Otis W., "Science Remaking the World," p. 141.
1232
J~WRNAL ooa CHEMICAL EDUCATION
JULY-AuG.. 1929
disease. The public was not convinced of the value of vaccination, so a public demonstration was held. The vaccinated cattle and sheep were immune, the unvaccinated died. Pastew was wildly applauded. Next, Pastew studied rabies and perfected vaccination for hydrophobia, and Ernile Roux, his understudy, perfected a toxin-antitoxin with which he vaccinated children sick with diphtheria." Before Roux perfectedvaccination, it is said that fifty out of every hundred children who entered the Hospital for Sick Children died of this disea~e.'~Keeping this death rate in mind and thinking for a moment of the agony which these poor children suffered, it is easy to understand the relief of the mothers when this preventive was introduced. Dr. Joseph Lister, in 1867," introduced antiseptic surgery. Up to this time, there had been no way of combating infection which appeared after surgical operations. Lister had read of Pasteur's study of fermentation and applied the idea to antiseptics. Another outcome of Pasteur's study of fermentation was the pasteurization of milk. As science tried to find ways to prevent disease, i t realized that it must find how the disease spread from one individual to another. The search was carried on in many parts of the world and showed several methods of transmission. Pasteur was the first to show how disease was caused and how i t spread. Robert Koch showed that anthrax was spread among sheep only when the healthy animals came in contact with the anthrax bacilli or spores of bacilli which were contained in the tissue of a dead animal." He told the farmers that they must burn the bodies of the dead animals or hury them very deep so that the bacilli could not rise to the surface to infect healthy sheep. The scientists of the nineteenth century revealed many carriers of disease, human and otherwise. Theohald Smith, in Texas, proved that baby ticks carried Texas fever to healthy cattle.ls David Bruce, in Uganda, discovered the tsetse fly carrying the deadly trypanosomes of sleeping sickness from antelope to man,I6 and started the war against sleeping sickness which is still going on. Ronald Ross, in India, proved that mosquitoes carried malaria among birds, but it was Battista Grassi,17 in the lowlands of Italy, who convicted the anopheles mosquito of carrying human malaria. Yellow fever was the subject of much controversy in the medical and health journals of the nineteenth century. The disease would suddenly DeKruif, Paul, 09. cit., p. 202. Ibid., p. 202. la American Public Health Association, op. cit.. p. 15. l4 DeKruif, Paul, op. cit.. p. 122. Ibid., p. 249. Ibid., p. 274. l7 Ibid., pp. 296 and 308. '2
appear in a town, and the people would not know who would be the next victim. Both the cause and the carrier were unknown. They frantically tried different remedies-fumigation, burning, but t o no avail. The only way of escape seemed t o be to leave the stricken town.18 Then the United States Government sent Walter Reed to Cuba with instructions to "give special attention to questions relating to the cause and prevention of yellow fever." It was not an easy task, but he accomplished it. He proved that the yellow fever was carried from the sick t o the healthy by the StegomyiaIgmosquito, and that yellow fever could be prevented if this mosquito was destroyed. 1t has also been proved that fleas carry the plague from diseased rats to men, and the war against plague developed into a war against rats. Robcrt Koch, in India, showed that the common bacillus carried cholera, and how it lived in polluted water. He said that India would not be freed from cholera until she practiced s a n i t a t i ~ n . ~ ~ Typhoid fever may be carried in several ways. The first cases in the Maidstone outbreak in 1897 were caused by contaminated water, but after this cause was eliminated, two hundred eighty cases occurred from direct or indirect contact with the sick. It has been proved that a few persons who have recovered from typhoid fever may excrete the bacillus for two years after illness. Food grown on polluted soil, and.dust, flies, and clothing may also be carrier^.^' Robert Koch, in Germany, discovered the tubercle germ and showed bow tuberculosis was spread from one person to another by inhaling the germs in dust, or by the coughing of people sick with the disease.22 The scientists of the nineteenth century encountered many difficulties when they made their studies of the various diseases. There was no trail to follow; so, like trne pioneers, they blazed their own. By a lucky chance, Koch found that he could isolate a germ on a solid surface and that the germ grew and did not mix with any other kind of germ.23 This was a great improvement on the broth culture which was first used. Later, Koch mixed gelatin with beef broth so that he would get a solid surface when the gelatin s ~ l i d i f i e d . ~ ~ When chemists began to work with the possibilities of coal-tar products, they little realized what a wide field they were opening up. Today, medicines, anesthetics, antiseptics, and aniline dyes are all made by the I8
Ie
De &if, Paul, 00.cil., pp. 312-3. Ibid., p. 308. Ibid., p. 142. Encyclopaedia Britlanica, Volume XXVII, pp. 5067. DeKruif, Paul, op. d l . , p. 136. Ibid., pp. 12&7. Ibid., pp. 125-7.
chemist, and he is not limited to the materials found in nature.25 When he does not find what he wants in Nature's cupboard, he creates a new product. In 1874,2eKolbe made the first medicine from coal tar, when he secured salicylic acid from carbolic acid. Coal tar also furnishes aspirin and other "headache" re me die^.^? Some of the anesthetics which have brought comfort to many people are cocain, eucain, and novocain; and among the antiseptics are listed flauviue, carbolic a~id,~X and mercurochrome.29 Weighert, in 1871,30taught us how to use the basic aniline dyes for staining bacteria. Paul Ehrlich believed in the possibilities of these dyes and it was he who showed Robert Koch how to stain the tubercle microbe.31 Ehrlich's work with aniline dyes led him up to the discovery of "606" which is the product of very skilful chemical synthesis. He actually changed a compound which contains deadly arsenic to a successful weapon for fighting syphilis.32 These searchers accomplished a great deal of work. Practically every disease which was studied was a disease which occurred in epidemic form and took thousands of lives. Until science discovered their cause and means of prevention, there was a very high death rate and a great financial loss. Some of these diseases have been practically eliminated, but others, such as tuberculosis, still have a high death rate even though it has been reduced. We have already learned how Koch, in 1883,33showed India that she must practice sanitation if she would wipe out cholera. Many years before that, the value of sanitation had been recognized by Rome; large sums of money were spent in taking care of sewage, and purifying the water of the polluted Tiher which was used for drinking water. During the Dark Ages, filth and pestilence prevailed and Europe was scourged with disease. In the middle of the nineteenth century, an epidemic of cholera broke out in London which led to a revival of sanitation and the establishment of water and sewage systems in London.34 I t has been shown that polluted water causes typhoid fever. Modem sanitation has introduced the use of chlorine and chlorine lime ZSlosson, Edwin E., "Creative Chemistry," pp. 8% .' " Ibid., pp. 86-8. % ' I b i d , pp. 86-8. " Ibid., pp. 86-8. 2' Farrell, Hugh, "What Price Progress?" p. 208. American Public Health Assodatian, op. cit., 0. 71. DeKruif, Paul, ofi. cit., p. 336. Ibid., pp. 350-1. Moore, H-, H., op. it., p. 75. Ibid., pp. 5-6.
VOL. 6, Nos. 7 AND 8
COLLEGE ESSAYS
1235
compounds to disinfect sewage.36 Most of the larger cities now have water purification plants which can purify the most polluted river waters. In 1904, Columbus, Ohio, had a death rate of 120 per 100,000 inhabitants, but after a water purification plant was installed this rate dropped t o three for each 100,000 inhabitants in 1920.36 In the last yearly report of this city, the cost of lime, soda ash, alum, and chlorine per one million gallons of water treated amounted to $14.00,a7a small cost when one stops t o th'mk of the decrease in the death rate and its cost. All through the United States the health rate has shown a greatly reduced death rate. Howe's "Chemistry in Industry" shows that twenty-two United States cities showed decreases ranging from 61 to 89'%.as All of which emphasizes the fact that good health is far cheaper than poor health and disease. After science had shown how t o combat disease, Public Health Service was created t o carry on the task. Three states, Massachusetts, California, and Virginia, and the District of Columbia had hoards of health prior to 1872.39 Today, every state has its board of health. There are also county and city boards of health and the United States Public Health Service. In all of these organizations, the chemist and the bacteriologist are continually fighting the diseases which have not been conquered. The United States Public Health Service handles the suppression of epidemics. The state boards of health handle the control of communicable diseases, maintain diagnostic laboratories, furnish antitoxins and serums free or a t cost to those who cannot afford t o pay for them.40 The prompt service of these diagnostic laboratories has prevented many epidemics; their antitoxins and serums have protected many communities from the chance of infection. The state laboratories also furnish diagnosis and treatment for venereal disease. This service is free or a t cost. Bacteriology was made possible by Pastew, and our knowledge today is based on the discoveries of Pasteur and the searchers who followed his lead. Bacteriology has taught us the cause of disease and its carrier; i t has taught us methods of diagnosis and immunization, and methods,of curing disease and saving lives by the use ofbaccines, sera, and antitoxins; and it has taught us the parts played by air, water, sewage, milk, and insects in the spread of disease and bas developed for us speciai methods of protecti~n.~' One duty of the modern bacteriology department is the inspection of food Howe, H. E., "Chemistry in Industry," Vol. 11, p. 387. " McPherson and Henderson, ''General Chemistry," p. 583. "Hoover, Charles P., "Water Softening and Purification at Columbus, Ohio." Wa'ater Works, Volume LXVII, No. 6, p. 239. a Howe, H. E., op. cit., p. 392. American Public Health Association, op. cit., p. 14. *Moore, Harry H., op. sit., pp. 214-5. 'I American Public Health Association, 09. cit., p. 90.
and drugs. Pure drugs insure certainty. The first vaccines were carelessly prepared without thought of sanitation which made the remedy very The United States Public Health Service inspects all antitoxins and toxin-antitoxins made in commercial laboratories doing an interstate business, and it also inspects the establishments." The inspection of milk and water are important duties of state boards of health." They also maintain a service for the tuberculin testing of cows. Research work is continually going on among the workers in bacteriology. Many organizations of physicians, sanitarians, health officers, and other trained workers are constantly studying health problems from a scientific angle.45 They differ from the alchemists, for they publish their work so that all may benefit from a common knowledge and enlarge upon it. Pasteur would be a happy man if he could see the large numher of men in laboratories and research institutes who are working together for the benefit of all. A great deal has been accomplished since Pasteur founded the science of health, but there is still a great deal to be done. The world can use a second Pasteur. 4P
"
Farrell, Hugh, 09. cit., p. 209. Moore, Harry H., 09. ci6, n. 102. IM.,p. 225. Williams, R. C., "Scientist in Public Health," Hygeia, 6, 403 (1928).
Bibliography "A Half Century of Public Health," American Public Health Association, 1921. Caldwell, Otis W., Ph.D., "Science Remaking the World," Doubleday, Page & Co.. 1924. DeKruif, Paul, "Microbe H ~ w t ~ r s ,H' ' a r c m t , Brace & CO., 1927, ninth printing. Fanell, Hugh, "What Pnre Progrcss~"G. E Pnlnam's Sons, 1926. Hoover, Charles P., "\Vater Softening and Putific-.am a t Columbus, Ohio, in 1927." Water Works, Volume LXVII, No 6 (June, 1928), p. 29. Howe. H. E.. "Ch:misw in Industrv." .. Volume 11. The Chemical Foundation Inc., 1927. McPherson, William, and Henderson. William Edwards. "A Course in General Chemistry." third edition, Ginn & Co., 1927, Boston. Moore, Harry H., "Public Health in the United States." first edition Harper 8Btos. 1923. Slosson. Edwin C., "Creative Chemistry." The Century Co., October, 1919. Wells, H. G., "Outline of History," Macmillan Co.. New York, October, 1927. Illustrated edition, two volumes in one Williams, R. C., "Scientist in Public Health," Hygeia, 6,403 (July, 1928). Encyclopedia Brittanica, Volume XXVII, 11th edition, University Press, Cambridge, England, 1911. New York. 35 West 32nd Street.
